Introduction
A significant shift in work and lifestyle has recently taken place, giving rise to the singular and dynamic phenomenon known as "digital nomadism." A growing workforce that resists traditional ideas of employment, office spaces, and geographic borders is represented by digital nomads. They are people who live nomadic lifestyles and work remotely from exotic locations, co-working facilities, or even the convenience of their own homes. They do this by utilising digital technology. numerous people's imaginations have been captured by this new way of working and living, leading sociologists and researchers to investigate the numerous consequences it has for individuals, communities, and society at large. The development of high-speed internet, sophisticated communication technologies, and the increasing need for flexible work arrangements are all closely related to the rise of digital nomadism. As this movement picks up steam, it puts traditional ideas of employment, stability, and belonging to the test. Critical considerations concerning the nature of labour, identity, community, and the wider impact on societal institutions are raised by this sociological upheaval. What does it mean to be a part of a workforce that is not limited by geography? How does this way of living affect interpersonal interactions, cross-cultural dialogue, and economic environments? These are just a few of the intricate and intriguing issues that demand investigation in our effort to comprehend the socio-cultural ramifications of the phenomenon of the digital nomad. Explore these questions in this study with the goal of illuminating this revolutionary trend and its impacts on the structure of modern society.
Literature Review
2. 1. Digital Nomadism and Social Structure
A lifestyle known as "digital nomadism" enables people to work remotely while on the go, free from the restrictions of typical office jobs. It was structured on digital infrastructures and technologies that support location freedom. To entice digital nomads, governments have begun to grant visas, underscoring the fight for global capital accumulation. Digital nomads are seen as a unique social group and a sociocultural phenomena [1,2]. Advantages and issue areas in life organisation and professional activities, which call for controlling social hazards, are its defining characteristics. The multidisciplinary discourse on digital nomadism is constantly growing, incorporating a range of research methodologies. Current events like the COVID-19 outbreak and the world economic crisis have an impact on the conversation. In spite of this, digital nomadism was institutionalising and becoming more professionalised, conforming with capitalist logics rather than providing a counterargument to it. The rise of the digital nomad symbolises a shift in how people view work, with an emphasis on work-life balance and location decisions based on personal preferences for leisure [3,4,5].
The AoIR 2021 conference featured a presentation by Edward [1] examined the rise of "digital nomad visas" during the COVID-19 pandemic. These visas represented a change in government efforts to take advantage of flexible mobility by allowing remote employees to live and work abroad. Through popular press stories, official websites, and social media posts about these visas, the study conducted a critical discourse analysis of digital nomadism. It revealed the ways in which governments institutionalised digital nomadism to entice talent and promote economic growth, frequently connecting it to Silicon Valley and techno-imperialism. These visas highlighted worldwide disparities in access to mobility regimes while simultaneously boosting mobility and strengthening regional and national borders. The development and implementation of mobility regimes in the context of digital nomadism during the pandemic were clarified by this study.
Krivtsova et al. [2] investigated the idea of "digital nomadism," in which people used digital technology to live and work remotely and on the go. It brought attention to the benefits and difficulties that digital nomad photographers, who were a part of this developing social category, encountered. The study identified social factors that could have an impact on these professionals, including unstable employment and the blurring of work-life boundaries. The significance of personal values, such as freedom, creativity, and self-improvement, in influencing the decisions and preferences of digital nomad photographers was also emphasised. In the end, the paper made the case that, within the context of digital nomadism, controlling social risks and embracing one's potential were crucial.
Reichenberger [3] delves into the world of digital nomads, individuals who embrace a location-independent lifestyle, merging work, leisure, and travel. It seeks to establish a clear definition of digital nomads and sheds light on their motivations for adopting this unique way of life. Additionally, the paper explores how digital nomads navigate the intricate balance between work, leisure, and travel, striving for a holistic existence marked by freedom across personal, spatial, and professional dimensions. In this idealized vision, work was not an obligation but a source of intrinsic motivation and fulfillment, akin to leisure pursuits. However, while travel was integral to this lifestyle, it also presents personal challenges that are perceived as a distinct form of effort and commitment.
Digital nomadism has evolved from a niche lifestyle to a mainstream phenomenon that includes a variety of professional roles, including remote corporate workers and digital entrepreneurs, according to Aroles et al. [4]. It emphasised the paucity of research in this field and examined how digital nomadism was evolving, based on Deleuzian and Guattarian notions of nomadism. The report argued that using qualitative content analysis, digital nomadism was institutionalising and becoming more professional, veering away from its first envisioned emancipatory goals. Instead, it became more and more in line with capitalist ideals, undermining its status as an alternative way of life.
Digital nomadism, fueled by developments in location-independent digital technology, was described by Hensellek and Puchala [5] as rising in popularity as people including business owners, independent contractors, and employees broke away from conventional 9-to-5 work structures. This change reflected the way people now see work-life balance, which emphasises a balance between work and leisure. The fundamental elements of digital nomadism digital work, flexibility, mobility, and identity/community were outlined in this chapter's examination of the fragmented literature on the topic. It also went into the potential benefits and dangers of each component, providing suggestions for further study and presenting useful implications for both theory and practise in this developing field.
Sanul [6] examined how the COVID-19 epidemic and the digital revolution, which changed the environment for distant labour, sparked the birth of digital nomadism. This development, made possible by internet connectivity and greater global mobility, generated discussions about how it might affect migratory patterns in the future. The effects of digital nomadism had to be considered in international migration policies. It was essential to analyse the global migration of digital nomads from sociological and geographical perspectives to inform successful policy-making. The purpose of this remark was to offer policy suggestions for resolving the precarity and inequality problems brought on by this particular type of labour mobility.
The COVID-19 epidemic, according to Hermann and Paris [7], has hastened the growth of digital nomadism, a way of life that allows people to pick their workplaces anywhere, frequently in far-flung areas. Digital nomadism was characterised by remote work from a variety of locations. This change put established organisational structures to the test and forced businesses to think seriously about long-term remote work strategies. To entice remote employees, certain nations, including Bermuda and Barbados, have provided digital nomad visas. Millions of people now live a life of digital nomadism, which was first imagined more than 20 years ago and was driven by a desire for independence and exploration. It combined labour and a mobile lifestyle while adhering to the idea of a "liquid society," or a society in which movement was constant.
Digital nomads, as defined by Holleran [8], sought lower living expenses by working remotely from less expensive locales, frequently in the Global South. They are notorious for their geoarbitrage practises. Some people had to reassess their relationship with their home nations as a result of the pandemic's disruption of their lifestyle owing to lockdowns and border closures. While some people valued the assistance programmes of their home countries, others, who had a more libertarian viewpoint, disliked being called back during the crisis. In addition, the research looked at whether digital nomadism would become more popular as distant employment increased and its possible effects on places in the Global South experiencing "transnational gentrification."
Dar and Madhusudhan [9] investigated how Delhi students used their metro journey time, paying close attention to how they used mobile devices. It brought home how important mobile technology was becoming to commuters' lives, particularly students who seek out high mobility and connectivity for both academic and recreational objectives. According to the report, students read online books, use social networking sites, and communicate with one another via email and text messages while riding the metro. It also emphasised the value of elements like personal space and internet connectivity in increasing the efficiency of journey time, eventually illuminating the changing trends in mobile device use while travelling for commuters and digital nomads around the world.
The interaction between digital nomads and the destination communities they lived in was examined by Hannonen et al. [10], with an emphasis on how stakeholders in these communities viewed and adjusted to the presence of digital nomads. The study concentrated on Gran Canaria, a well-known tourist destination in Europe and a Spanish island. In order to conceptualise digital nomadism, the study developed a novel supply-side paradigm. Stakeholder theory was then applied to examine how local communities and digital nomads interact. The research offered a novel viewpoint, characterising digital nomads as "new locals." The study also showed that local stakeholders' accommodation techniques, which included provider, communicator, integrator, and embracer strategies, were closely related to their respective positions.
Exploring the Impact of Digital Nomadism on Social Structures
The effects of electronic nomadism (e-nomadism), a contemporary behavioural model, on the growth of human capital were investigated by Grigoryeva and Iakovleva [11]. They used an emphasis on abilities linked to information processing and managing massive datasets to show how e-nomadism caused changes in human capital. The effective use of information and communication technologies (ICT) was substantially influenced by human capital quality, and vice versa, ICT imposed new demands on human capital. According to the study, there will be a rise in the demand for human capital with skills that enable electronic nomads to navigate the web more efficiently and handle massive volumes of online data. Recent Russian economic statistics were analysed, and the results showed greater diversity and continuous growth of online commercial activity.
Simová [12] examined the burgeoning discipline of digital nomadism, a way of living that merged work and play. It acknowledged the early stages of this field's study and aimed to sketch out its top nations, authors, and subject areas. The study used bibliometrics to analyse papers in the Web of Science database, revealing the development of scholarly output in this field. The study shed light on both extensively researched and underrepresented subjects by identifying 17 key principles essential to digital nomad research. It divided research into three major categories: identifying and differentiating remote, nomadic, and digital work; analysing nomadic lifestyles and geographical freedom; and looking at the factors influencing the lives of digital nomads.
Orel [13] provided a thorough examination of digital nomadism by incorporating significant ideas and information from the companion special issue. It explored the complex nature of this new way of life by combining the contributions of numerous researchers and articles in the issue. By highlighting the complex elements and nuanced characteristics that defined digital nomadism, the article aimed to spark a thoughtful and educated dialogue. It promoted a deeper level of reader engagement with the subject matter through this investigation, creating a better knowledge of this changing way of life. In essence, it gave people a stimulating environment to consider the topic of digital nomadism in all of its complexity.
Using knowledge gained from a study of digital nomads, Jarrahi et al. [14] went into the area of personal knowledge management. First, they provided both empirical data and a conceptual framework for comprehending knowledge management in the setting of autonomous workers. This was one of their two major achievements. Second, they improved the field of social informatics by clarifying the development of personal knowledge management by using Gibson's ecological viewpoint. For understanding this transformation, where knowledge management moved from an organization-centric strategy to a worker-centric one, highly reliant on personal knowledge ecologies, digital nomads provided a compelling empirical backdrop. These "personal knowledge ecologies" combined knowledge management practises with the underlying digital technologies.
2. 2. The Shift from Sedentary Life to Mobile Lifestyles
mHealth, which refers to the incorporation of cutting-edge technologies, especially smartphones, to supplement conventional healthcare models, was created by Narasimhadevara and Rambhatla [15]. Geographical, socioeconomic, and cultural restrictions frequently make it difficult for people to get healthcare, but the widespread usage of mobile phones, made possible by their cutting-edge technology and low cost, has created new opportunities. People who had trouble accessing healthcare were now able to control their health through technology and applications thanks to mHealth. They demonstrated how mHealth plays a crucial role in enhancing disease control, promoting health for emerging diseases, and increasing access to healthcare through four worldwide case studies. International development had been accelerated by cooperative initiatives including civil society, the commercial sector, and governments, in line with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of the United Nations.
Forlano [16] discussed the adoption and diffusion of mobile technologies, social implications affecting relationships and work activities, spatial dynamics for real-time coordination, technological aspects involving various devices and networks, and the concept of affordances in understanding user interactions in his presentation on mobile lifestyles in the business world. In addition, there was a focus on organisational effects like telecommuting and coworking spaces, urban applications like location-based gaming, and emergent cultural practises like mobile blogging and location-based social media. Another significant area of investigation within this research subject concerned methodological developments in data gathering within real-world environments.
Based on the satisfactions they obtain from using their mobile phones, Abeele [17] sought to define and characterise different mobile lifestyles among Flemish teenagers. Eight gratifications were identified by the study, and they were used as segmentation factors in a cluster analysis. The result was the emergence of four distinct mobile lifestyles: "devoted," "dependent," "pragmatic," and "disinterested." The large differences in demographics and social-psychological characteristics among these lifestyle groups demonstrate how young people adopted mobile phones into their lives in response to the particular opportunities and problems they encountered as they made the transition to adulthood. Comparing studies on college students and adults, it was found that mobile phone gratifications were similar despite differences in cultural situations.
People who had marginally mobile lifestyles were a category that was frequently ignored in studies of migration and mobility, according to Juntunen [18]. These individuals, who came from both the Global North and South, travelled across borders without establishing down anywhere in particular. Their mobility was a result of things like problems with the economy in their home country or discontent with societal norms and lifestyles. The article highlighted the key elements of these "marginal mobilities," drawing on fieldwork with Western liveaboards in the Mediterranean, new European nomads travelling between Europe and Africa, and working-class Moroccan men in the transnational space between Morocco and Spain. These ways of life were extremely mobile, neither fully choice nor forced, and they developed along ill-defined transit routes.
Using a case study as an example, Lurati [19] explores the health problems and injury risks connected to prolonged sitting and sedentary lifestyles. It covers the particular causes of why sedentary employees are more likely to get musculoskeletal injuries and underlines the many health dangers associated with prolonged durations of sitting. The article also discusses additional health issues linked to extended sitting or sedentary behaviour, highlighting the benefits of frequent exercise. Evidence-based interventions are also highlighted as useful tactics for reducing the health concerns brought on by extended sitting, with possible advantages for higher productivity. MN underwent physical therapy to increase her strength and flexibility, and she was instructed to keep a daily activity journal to track her development.
2 .3. Work-Life Balance and Labor Relations
Khallash and Kruse [20] examined the idea of the future of labour in Europe and emphasised the difficulties brought on by changes in the political, social, and economic climate. They argued that upcoming changes will usher in a period of transition in labour dynamics, driven by developing technologies and the rising participation of women in the workforce. Special focus was given to Scandinavian models, particularly Danish ones, which were then experiencing substantial challenges due to their ageing population and were noted for their progressive work-life balancing practises. In contrast to one scenario in which work-life balance remained a cornerstone of employees' lives, the other scenario in which it became a privilege for a select few was described in the paper.
Beyond the conventional work and family spheres, Gragnano [21] investigated the idea of work-life balance (WLB). It gave special attention to the role that health plays as a nonworking domain in achieving WLB. The purpose of the study was to better understand the relationship between job satisfaction and both the work-life balance (WFB) and the work-health balance (WHB). A poll of 318 people was done in order to accomplish this. The results showed that while evaluating WLB, workers saw their health as equally vital to their families. Furthermore, compared to the WFB, the WHB appeared to have a stronger impact on job satisfaction. The study also emphasised the necessity for customised approaches to WLB based on worker diversity, emphasising the significance of taking into account individual characteristics, such as age, gender, parental status, and work aptitude, when analysing the effects of WFB and WHB on job satisfaction.
Work-life balance (WLB) and its effects on employee health and wellbeing were the subjects of a study by Zheng et al. [22]. Research on individual WLB strategies and organisational WLB programmes was conducted with 700 employees in Queensland, Australia, using multiple regression analysis. The results showed that workers who used their own WLB methods had higher health and wellbeing and had more success achieving WLB. Although there was no clear link between WLB and health, organisational WLB programmes helped lower employee stress levels. Employee health and happiness were also impacted by a number of control factors, including age, working hours, educational attainment, and household incomes. This study shed light on the intricate interplay between individual and organisational elements that affect employee health and wellbeing, providing guidance for WLB policies and human resource management practises in organisations.
Sánchez-Hernández et al. [23] examined the changing nature of employment and work, highlighting the need of work-life balance as a key component in establishing a positive workplace culture. Best Companies to Work for were recognised for their employee-centric approaches, and in the current digital era, potential employees—particularly younger generations—used company websites to make decisions. The study's main objective was to evaluate the most recent Fortune's Best Companies to Work for's work-life balance policies. In order to make benchmarking easier and take into account the preferences of the younger generations working today, it established a weighted index. According to a survey, even the best firms offered just a limited amount of information on work-life balance, underscoring the necessity for HR departments to seamlessly combine work and personal life in order to recruit and retain Generation Z and Millennial talent.
Bhende et al. [24] investigation of the interplay between work-life balance and quality of work life focused on how the former affected the latter. Principal component analysis and multiple regression analysis were used to analyse data from 89 managers in Indian banks from both the public and private sectors. It soon became clear that work-life balance and quality of life included a wide range of topics. Notably, the study found that, with the exception of grievance redress, all three quality of work life dimensions significantly predicted the productivity component of work-life balance, while only the grievance redress dimension significantly predicted the skill deployment dimension. Surprisingly, none of the work-life quality dimensions seemed to be related to the work-life efficiency component. Through increasing the quality of work life, managers may increase staff productivity and skill utilisation, which will have positive effects on both employee wellbeing and organisational performance.
The research by Cannizzo et al. [25] explored the ongoing difficulties experienced by academic employees, such as time constraints, anxiety, and heavy workloads. The study studied how early career academics interacted with these regulations using a critical analysis influenced by Richard Sennett's research on character loss in contemporary capitalist societies. Its findings, which were based on interviews with 25 early-career Australian academics, revealed the connections between policy engagement, professional identities, and ideas of "appropriate" behaviour. Research has emphasised the ethical conundrums surrounding the use of work-life balance regulations and the impact that workplace cultures have on academics' decisions. The necessity of taking into account how worker ideals are constructed within organisational cultures for future research endeavours was highlighted by this study, which improved our understanding of the practical application of such policies at both the individual and departmental levels.
2.4. Flexibility and Work-Life Balance Among Digital Nomads
The four pillars of digital nomad work—digital work, gig work, nomadic employment, and international travel adventures—are covered in depth by Nash et al. [26]. In order to create the framework for future study on the changing relationships between the workforce of the future, those who were born into the digital age, and newly developing digital platforms, we emphasise the part that digital technologies play in enabling these characteristics.
Mancinelli [27] combines business and wanderlust thanks to mobile technology and global connectivity. This essay examines their way of life via the lenses of mobility and individualization theories, drawing on ethnography and netnography. It clarifies how eschewing sedentary conventions encourages a quest for independence characterised by simplicity and risk-taking above materialism. However, it emphasises how important structural limitations are in this struggle for freedom. The study explores the economic tactics, such as geoarbitrage and capital commodification, that support their indefinite mobility while demonstrating how digital nomadism corresponds with entrepreneurship and, rather than opposing neoliberalism, adapts to it opportunistically.
According to Cook [28], a lot of digital nomads first underestimate the need for discipline and fail to foresee the difficulties of working in touristy areas. This article explores the degree to which these disciplinary practises turn into crucial tools for upholding a distinct separation between work and play in the digital nomad lifestyle through extensive ethnographic research.
Matos and Ardevol [29] digital nomad trend, a blend of remote work and travel, has surged among tech and creative professionals over the past decade. Exploring the motivations behind this lifestyle, including "freedom," "inspiration," and "work-life balance," this article delves into ethnographic research conducted in Barcelona. Through participant observation and in-depth interviews, it examines how digital nomads envision the connections between work, mobility, and lifestyle. It highlights that digital nomadism isn't solely about constant travel but revolves around the potential for mobility, emphasizing the role of anticipation. Despite the pandemic's impact, these imaginaries endure.
Demaj [30] evolving work environments, driven by employee demands, have embraced remote work for increased job satisfaction and organizational performance. This shift has given rise to digital nomadism, where young professionals and freelancers work online while blurring the lines between work, leisure, and travel. This research explores factors influencing digital nomads' destination choices and evaluates Tirana's appeal, offering insights for policymakers in developing countries to attract digital nomads and stimulate local economies.
Hannonen [31] delves into the rising trend of digital nomadism, where individuals work while traveling, fueled by societal shifts like technology ubiquity and flexible employment. Despite its growing popularity, digital nomadism lacks a unified understanding, with scattered literature across various disciplines. The paper aims to provide a comprehensive view of this lifestyle by framing it within the context of lifestyle mobilities, although limited empirical studies call for further conceptual exploration of the phenomenon.
Gustave and Alarfaj [32] has forced businesses to embrace remote work, leading HR professionals to reevaluate flexible working. Work-life balance gains importance as people question its meaning during the pandemic. HR professionals see the need for flexible work policies to attract and retain top talent. Digital Nomadism, driven by technology, offers a unique approach to work-life balance, enabling highly mobile workers to find harmony between work and lifestyle.
Orel [33] digital nomads, often part of the creative sector, represent a modern workforce blending work, leisure, and travel. They temporarily integrate with different locations, utilizing digital infrastructure for individualized lifestyles. This lifestyle has given rise to creative tourism and the use of local coworking spaces, fostering interactions with local communities and synergetic skill exchange. However, the motivations behind using these spaces and their associated benefits remain unclear, prompting further investigation into the impact of digital nomadism and coworking spaces on work-life balance.
Zumbusch and Lalicic [34] investigates the role of co-living spaces in enhancing digital nomads' overall well-being through interviews with 12 digital nomads living in such spaces. The research identifies specific elements within co-living spaces that influence digital nomads' experiences and connects these factors to the neo-tribe theory. Ultimately, recommendations are provided for practitioners to improve the design of co-living spaces and support digital nomads' well-being.
Almeida et al. [35] explores the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the work practices and lifestyles of digital nomads by analyzing online discussions on Reddit. Initial findings suggest that the pandemic served as an opportunity for aspiring digital nomads to test this lifestyle, but it also highlighted an overload of online channels for current digital nomads. Additionally, the research addresses the fragmented nature of existing literature on digital nomadism and aims to provide a more comprehensive understanding of this phenomenon through a literature review.
2.5. Digital Nomadism s Impact on the Future of Work
Schlagwein and Jarrahi [36] explores the concept of digital work mobilities, focusing on digital nomadism as an illustrative example of highly mobile digital work. It draws from the recent "mobile turn" in social sciences to understand how information technology enables new forms of unrestricted work. Ethnographic observations and interviews with digital nomads are utilized to identify four interdependent mobilities: administrative, spatial, temporal, and content, shedding light on the multifaceted nature of digital work in today's dynamic, global environments.
Wang et al. [37] explores the future of knowledge work post-COVID-19, leveraging insights from digital nomadism. It employs a Hegelian dialectical analysis, contrasting the Factory paradigm (9-to-5 corporate worker) with Hypermobility (digital nomad). Envisioned futures span a spectrum from Digital Taylorism (highly controlled) to Worker Autonomy (freedom-oriented), impacting work organization, technology integration, work-life boundaries, and social safety nets. Information Systems researchers play a crucial role in shaping these futures, determining whether they lean towards Digital Taylorism or embrace Worker Autonomy.
Schlegelmilch and Lysova [38] delves into the evolving nature of work, focusing on digital nomadism as a growing trend. Over 25 months, it examines highly mobile digital nomads, revealing their pursuit of work-life independence, engagement in like-minded communities, and the dynamic creation and dissolution of temporary work and living arrangements. This research contributes to discussions on work design, work identity, and the shifting landscape of workspaces, providing valuable insights for future theory development and research in these areas.
2.6. Digital Nomads and Cultural Diversity
Ehn et al. [39] highlighting the adaptability of remote work for both groups while also challenging the nomadic lifestyle due to border restrictions. This analysis draws from risk society theories and Maslow's hierarchy of needs to examine how digital nomads responded. By analyzing content from YouTube creators in this community, we observed that most reinforced their core values of self-actualization rather than succumbing to fear-based narratives, and they presented compelling arguments for both continuing to roam or returning home for safety.
Sánchez-Vergara et al. [40] delves into how countries craft policies to entice digital nomads, foster business development, and position themselves as ideal hubs for these knowledge workers. Through an interpretative policy analysis of 24 countries that have introduced such visas over the past decade, it emerges that these visas are framed as immersive experiences that encompass leisure amenities. Moreover, governments employ these policies to boost business environments and cultivate robust entrepreneurial ecosystems. This research highlights essential policy mechanisms supporting the attraction of highly skilled mobile workers to specific regions and initiates discussions about their efficacy.
Chevtaeva and Denizci-Guillet [41] introduces digital nomads into the realm of tourism, positioning them within the purview of tourism and hospitality research. To deepen our comprehension of digital nomads as tourists, this research establishes links between their lifestyles and the perceived value of coworking spaces during their travels. Through qualitative inductive content analysis conducted via semi-structured interviews, we unearthed intriguing connections between lifestyles and coworkation experiences.
Al-Hadi and Al-Aufi [42] adopt a task-oriented approach to investigate the adaptability of digital nomadic workers' information practices, examining both their mobile social practices and technical approaches. Through interviews with 21 Omani digital nomads from diverse professional backgrounds, including large organizations, SMEs, freelancers, and multi-skilled individuals, we gain valuable insights into emerging trends in nomadic work. Despite being in its early stages in Oman, our findings show that digital nomads exhibit the capacity to create flexible work strategies and effectively harness technology for enhanced productivity. These results have practical implications for decision-makers in shaping environments that cater to the needs of digital nomads, as well as for software developers seeking to innovate in the realm of remote work applications. This study is pioneering in the region, representing the first empirical exploration of nomadic work in Oman and shedding light on how dynamic contexts influence information practices in this unique work setting.
Mourato et al. [43] delves into the distinctive role of digital nomads, often regarded as modern entrepreneurs disrupting traditional business models across various sectors. These nomadic professionals operate beyond conventional organizational boundaries, infusing diverse working cultures and forms of capital with value. Given their global mobility, this research explores the nuances of digital nomads' social responsibility and its impact on their self-efficacy and innovation. Employing structural equation modeling (SEM) to analyze survey data, the findings underscore the importance for tourism firms to consider the social responsibility aspect when targeting this unique niche. Notably, digital nomads, primarily solo travelers, prioritize the sense of community and seek destinations with accommodating legal, bureaucratic, and flexible living conditions.
According to Patokorpi [44], the core characteristics of mobile technology, such as mobility, interactivity, contextuality, ubiquity, pervasiveness, personalisation, and cooperation, are strikingly compatible with constructivist pedagogical ideas. There is a definite affinity for abductive reasoning in the field of information and communication technology-enhanced learning, particularly in the setting of mobile learning. Even though constructivist educators frequently view abduction as the ideal form of reasoning for mobile learners, it does have certain inherent limitations. Concepts like tacit knowledge and aura, in addition to abduction, give insight on the limits of knowledge and learning enabled by ICT. Furthermore, cutting-edge mobile technologies provide promising ways to overcome some of these restrictions by enhancing education and edutainment through the use of context awareness, multisensory experiences, and vireality, which combines components of the real and virtual worlds.
2.7. Contributions to a Cosmopolitan Society
According to MacRae [45], the line between "long-stay tourists" and an expat population has become hazy. Both tourist and expat populations have grown continuously since the 1970s, and after 2010, this growth substantially intensified. New types of visitors and expatriates have emerged as a result of this boom, changing how they interact with the local people and culture. Ubud has transformed from a tourist-filled village to a multicultural international city. In exploring this shift, this study contends that traditional tourism categories fall short of expressing its complexity and that cosmopolitanism provides a more useful lens for comprehending its evolution.
Loryn [46] explores the lives of digital nomads in Chiang Mai, Thailand, during 2019, drawing on theories of 'global nomads' and mobile professionals. It uncovers how digital nomads define 'home' through travel with loved ones, emotional connections to belongings, and maintaining family ties via social media. Some also envision an 'ideal home base' based on social relationships rather than location or amenities.
Richards [47] delves into the concept of youth nomadism, a result of the rising trend in youth travel. It thoroughly examines existing literature and recent empirical evidence, revealing two key themes: the evolution of youth travel niches like backpacking, volunteer tourism, and educational exchange, and the broader context within the mobilities paradigm. A comprehensive global survey of youth travel, encompassing 34,000 respondents, highlights three prominent travel styles: the backpacker, characterized as a 'neo-tribe'; the flashpacker or 'digital nomad,' embracing digital infrastructure for a flexible lifestyle; and the global nomad, a 'location independent traveler' striving for integration with local communities while resisting systemic constraints.
Mancinelli and Molz [48] delves into the dynamic mobile lifestyle of digital nomads, a fusion of remote work, international travel, and multi-local living that navigates both in harmony with and in resistance to state-defined mobility regulations. Employing the concept of 'friction,' the lens of 'governmobility,' and insights from ethnographic fieldwork with digital nomads, it explores how these individuals ingeniously transform state-imposed limitations into forms of 'border artistry' to realize their lifestyle objectives within the state's shadow. Simultaneously, the article posits that states themselves act as 'border artists,' exemplified by their recently established special visa programs. The findings illuminate that mobility regulations extend beyond governing movement to shaping mobile individuals' behaviors, emphasizing attributes like self-sufficiency, consumer citizenship, and depoliticized mobility.
Loh [49] delves into workplace incivility within Singapore, viewing it as a tool for asserting social power. It explores whether specific cultural aspects contribute to the acceptance of incivility in Singaporean workplaces. Given the growing cultural exchanges between East and West, understanding workplace incivility is crucial for fostering better comprehension among employers and employees in their workplace dynamics. Singapore's iconic Merlion symbolizes its collectivist society, where group interests take precedence over personal ones. Individuals are deeply ingrained within close-knit in-groups from birth, which impose expectations of deference and cooperation towards leaders. The chapter underscores the significance of considering culture when addressing or researching workplace incivility in the context of Singapore.
Sheep [50] understand the influence of organisations on society and personal well-being. The emerging field of workplace spirituality shows promise in this regard. The ethical conundrums in workplace spirituality, brought on by competing ethical climates and the effect of global moral thinking, have, nevertheless, gone unnoticed in earlier study. This essay fills in these gaps by discussing two conundrums and suggesting theoretical frameworks for impartial viewpoints. A person-organization fit viewpoint is proposed for the "quiet desperation" challenge, whereas a multiparadigm strategy is advantageous for the instrumentality dilemma. The paper ends with directions for additional study.
Wise [51] explores intercultural encounters in Singapore's mobile labor sector, considering the impact of work conditions, racial hierarchies, and visa systems on migrant workers' cosmopolitan practices. It highlights two cases of 'incongruous encounter' within South Asian restaurants in Singapore's Little India, revealing differences in cosmopolitan sensibilities. The study emphasizes the role of situational factors, such as work dynamics and recognition relations, in shaping these encounters and cautions against romanticizing learned intercultural skills as true cosmopolitanism.
Ossewaarde [52] delves into the impact of cosmopolitanism on group cohesion, emphasizing a transition from sociality to a broader human-centric perspective that envisions an inclusive society of strangers. It explores various facets of cosmopolitanism, including its association with the global elite, the concept of world citizenship, its role in advocating for human rights, its potential as a form of secular humanism, and its influence on global norms. Across these dimensions, cosmopolitanism emerges as a force that encourages the development of a society embracing diversity and unfamiliarity.
2.8. Online Work and Face-to-Face Interaction
Fan et al. [53] delves into how advanced Information Communication Technology (ICT) is reshaping the essence of tourism encapsulation/decapsulation by influencing the level and nature of connectivity. It examines the impact of online and in-person social interactions on travelers' overall travel experiences. The research establishes a tourist typology consisting of six categories, including Disconnected Immersive Travelers, Digital Detox Travelers, Diversionary Travelers, Dual Zone Travelers, Daily Life Controllers, and Social Media Addicts. Furthermore, the study introduces a contact-immersion nexus to illustrate the attachment tendencies of these diverse tourist types between their home and travel destinations. The paper also discusses the theoretical insights and practical implications of these findings.
Kupritz and Cowell [54] investigated employees' perspectives on enhancing face-to-face interactions with electronic communication in the realm of information management. While the value of effective in-person communication between managers and staff is widely recognized, organizations face resource allocation decisions. This study found that employees consider private, personal, or sensitive human resource information as crucial for face-to-face communication. On the other hand, less confidential matters like meeting schedules, training details, policy updates, system issues, and detailed information were viewed as equally or even more productive when delivered through email or electronic means.
Paechter and Maier [55] involved 2,196 students from 29 Austrian universities aimed to uncover the aspects of e-learning courses that students find advantageous for their learning experience. The study also sought to understand when students prefer online or face-to-face learning components. Students expressed their appreciation for online learning due to its ability to offer a well-structured learning material, support self-regulated learning, and facilitate information dissemination. Conversely, they favored face-to-face learning for communication scenarios where shared understanding or interpersonal relations were crucial. Importantly, the study found that students leaned towards face-to-face learning when acquiring conceptual knowledge or practical skills but preferred online learning when developing self-regulated learning skills.
Lee et al. [56] aims to explore the Internet's impact on quality of life (QoL), specifically investigating whether online communication, akin to face-to-face interactions, contributes to an enhanced QoL. The hypothesis posits that using the Internet for interpersonal communication can positively influence the QoL of Internet users, mirroring the effects of in-person interactions in daily life. Survey data from four Chinese cities (Hong Kong, Taipei, Beijing, and Wuhan) were collected to test this hypothesis as replicates. Quality of life was assessed using Diener's Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). Surprisingly, the study found that Internet communication did not predict QoL, while face-to-face communication with friends and family members did, with consistent results across all four Chinese cities. The study also explores potential reasons for this unexpected finding.
McGraw et al. [57] explored the potential of multimedia cases as tools for enhancing teacher professional development. It specifically investigates discussions that took place online and in face-to-face settings, involving a diverse mix of participants: pre-service mathematics teachers, in-service mathematics teachers, mathematicians, and mathematics teacher educators. These discussions predominantly revolved around the practical application of tasks presented in the multimedia cases within classroom contexts. Additionally, participants delved into topics related to task attributes and their suitability for engaging students in meaningful exploration of mathematical concepts and processes. An analysis of the contributions across different group member types reveals that the diverse backgrounds and experiences of participants can synergize to facilitate robust and insightful discussions on mathematics, teaching, and learning.
Jaggars [58] investigated the perspectives of community college students regarding their experiences in both online and face-to-face learning environments. It also delves into their motivations for choosing online over face-to-face sections of particular courses. Findings reveal that students perceived lower levels of instructor engagement in online courses, often feeling the need to be self-directed in their learning. Consequently, most students opted for online courses primarily for subjects they considered "easy," reserving "difficult" or "essential" subjects for face-to-face instruction. To address these preferences, colleges should consider either enhancing instructor presence and guidance in online courses or ensuring an ample availability of face-to-face course options for students who prefer that mode of learning.
Joinson et al. [59] examined the media preferences of Internet users with varying levels of self-esteem (n = 265) across different interpersonal risk scenarios. Participants were tasked with ranking four communication media (face-to-face, email, letter, and telephone) based on their preferences. Two scenarios, requesting a pay raise and asking for a date, included experimental variations in the perceived risk of rejection (25%, 50%, or 75% chance). Low self-esteem users (LSE) displayed a clear inclination towards email communication, while high self-esteem users (HSE) favored face-to-face interactions. Additionally, a higher chance of rejection in a scenario led to a preference for email over face-to-face communication. These findings shed light on the strategic utilization of various communication media by motivated Internet users.
Cole et al. [60] drawing from Media Richness Theory (MRT) and Channel Expansion Theory (CET), explored whether students' preferences for FtF communication influenced their communication and course satisfaction in online settings. While students expressed higher satisfaction levels with FtF communication and courses, the study found no evidence that a preference for FtF negatively impacted online course satisfaction. Instead, the results indicate that students' satisfaction with online instructors' communication plays a pivotal role in predicting overall satisfaction with online courses.
Sjølie et al. [61] explored online collaboration's importance in education and work, accentuated by the Covid-19 pandemic. It emphasizes students as active agents and self-organizing teams during the transition to online learning. Findings reveal both challenges and solutions in maintaining social interaction and offer practical insights for educators and policymakers.
2.9. Challenges in Face-to-Face Interactions for Digital Nomads
Miguel et al. [62] delves into the nexus between digital nomadism and feelings of loneliness, examining how digital nomads combat loneliness, particularly through social media. Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, and platforms like Slack and MeetUp play a pivotal role in maintaining connections and forming new ones. However, the extensive use of social media can also trigger the fear of missing out (FoMO). Through 15 in-depth interviews, this research aims to shed light on the less explored challenges of digital nomadism, specifically addressing issues of loneliness and FoMO that can impact their overall well-being.
Nash et al. [63] portrayed as highly location-independent, this study challenges that notion by highlighting the significance of various spaces in digital nomadic work. Through interviews with 23 digital nomads and the analysis of workspace images on Twitter, the research explores the intricate interplay between diverse workspaces, work routines, and technologies that define nomadic work. These findings offer a nuanced perspective on the "work from anywhere, anytime" concept, emphasizing the substantial role that physical spaces can have in shaping the nature of work.
Christiansen [64] involved 24 informants, including digital nomads, government officials, and local professionals, highlights their role as a distinct market segment and their potential contribution to the local digital ecosystem through knowledge transfer. The research reveals willingness for knowledge sharing, integration challenges, cultural barriers, and legal uncertainties, forming a theoretical path model depicting their relationship with Bali's digital ecosystem.
Stickel [65] explored the emerging trend of digital nomadism and its potential impact on the future workforce. By delving into the experiences of seven self-identified digital nomads, it examines their motivations, work arrangements, and daily lives as perpetual travelers. The study anticipates that a significant portion of the future workforce will adopt elements of the digital nomad mindset, characterized by the fusion of remote work, location independence, and a desire for exploration. Drawing insights from these interviews, the project offers recommendations for companies to strategically address the growing demand for mobility and flexibility among employees.
Prabawa and Pertiwi [66] investigates the motivations of these digital nomads, employing push and pull factor theory to identify internal and external drivers for their choice of Bali as a destination. Through factor analysis involving 150 digital nomad respondents, the research uncovers key factors such as work-related motivation, networking opportunities, inspiring destinations, comfortable accommodations, and enjoyable activities. These insights can inform tourism authorities in crafting strategies to tap into this emerging market.
Knierim [67] discussed the significant impact of COVID-19, which has compelled a shift toward remote work, altering productivity and social interaction in the workplace. It highlights the challenges associated with transitioning from traditional in-person meetings to virtual ones and suggests that emerging mixed reality (MR) technology could bridge the divide between physical and virtual workspaces, potentially fostering innovation in remote work.
Kong [68] explored the intersection between digital nomadism and corporate environments. Digital nomads, who embrace remote work while traveling for lifestyle reasons, bring unique patterns and values into corporate settings. Grounded in institutional theory, this study investigates the differences in logics between digital nomadism and corporate culture, identifies resulting challenges, and proposes strategies to mitigate these issues. The findings yield a framework for navigating and resolving conflicts in the working relationships between digital nomads and corporations.
Albayrak [69] offered a holistic perspective on digital nomadism, a lifestyle blurring the lines between work, leisure, and global travel. It examines the impact of communication technologies and digitalization on this phenomenon, explores key features of digital nomadism as a form of lifestyle mobility, and raises questions about whether it is primarily a hedonic choice or driven by necessity.
Bouncken et al. [70] investigated the global expansion of coworking spaces, attributing their growth to institutional factors. This research underscores the significance of community, emotional engagement, local connections, and digital integration within open offices in fostering entrepreneurship. It highlights shared lifestyles and strong digital identities among users as contributors to this entrepreneurial ecosystem, with variations primarily seen in ownership models.
2.10. Implications for Social Interactions and Relationships
Heaphy and Dutton [71] demonstrated that understanding the physiology of positive social interactions at work can lead to novel inquiries into their impact on human capacity and how organizational factors influence employee health and physiological resilience. Furthermore, we discuss the practical implications of integrating physiological data into organizational research, advocating for a deeper exploration of how everyday work interactions affect employees' physical well-being. This approach aims to foster a more robust connection between human physiology and organizational research.
Shah and Shah [72] investigated the relationships between supervisor and peer relations, demographic factors, and employee readiness for organizational change in a developing country. Employing a quantitative approach, the study utilizes a self-administered survey questionnaire for data collection. Descriptive statistics, Pearson's correlations, multiple regression analysis (MRA), and multianalysis of variances (MANOVA) are employed to analyze the data. The findings reveal that positive relationships exist between supervisor and peer relations and readiness for change, as well as with demographic factors like the number of dependents and younger employees.
Li and Hung [73] draws on social-identity and social-exchange theories to investigate the influence of leader-member relationships (LMX) and coworker relationships (CWR) on the connection between transformational leadership and task performance/organizational citizenship behavior. Using survey data collected from 1,040 teachers across 52 elementary schools in Taiwan, the research reveals that all four dimensions of transformational leadership positively impact LMX. However, only individualized consideration and inspirational motivation have positive effects on CWR. Furthermore, the study finds that LMX is a more effective predictor of task performance, while CWR outperforms LMX as a predictor of organizational citizenship behavior.
Eby and Robertson [74] highlighted the importance of workplace mentoring for employee development but notes varying effects in existing research. To enhance mentoring benefits, it introduces five relationship science theories and their potential applications in understanding workplace mentoring. It considers unique aspects of workplace mentoring and suggests avenues for future research, concluding with practical implications for mentors, protégés, and organizations.
Lam and Lau's research [75] addresses the relatively overlooked issue of workplace loneliness and its impact on employee behavior. While extensive research has focused on loneliness among adults, its effects within the workplace context have received limited attention. This study is grounded in the social exchange model and posits a hypothesis that suggests lonely employees, when compared to their non-lonely counterparts, are likely to experience lower-quality leader-member and organization-member exchanges. This, in turn, results in reduced performance not only in their assigned tasks but also in their extra-role responsibilities. The research draws empirical support for these hypotheses through a survey conducted among schoolteachers, providing valuable insights into the consequences of workplace loneliness on employee performance and organizational dynamics.
Caligiuri and Lazarova [76] presented a model outlining the process through which female expatriates establish relationships and leverage them to achieve cross-cultural adjustment. The model comprises three key components that influence cross-cultural adjustment. The first component encompasses factors determining the female expatriate's ability to form relationships during the assignment, including her personality, cultural norms regarding women, language proficiency, and the availability of interaction opportunities. The second component encompasses various sources of social interaction and support, such as family members and host national colleagues. The third component elucidates the nature of social interaction and support received by female expatriates, including emotional, informational, and instrumental aspects. The paper also provides practical insights for multinational organizations tasked with sending female expatriates on assignments.
Simon et al. [77] explored the impact of remote work duration on organizational affective commitment, focusing on latent functions. Data from 456 participants were analyzed to investigate potential mitigating effects of latent functions on the relationship between remote work duration and affective commitment.
Coté [78] introduced a novel social interaction model that considers how emotion regulation influences strain through interpersonal dynamics. In this model, the impact of emotion regulation on strain is elucidated by the recipient's response to the sender's emotion regulation and expression, the type of emotion regulation employed, and the specific emotion being regulated.
Hammer et al. [79] investigated the impact of organizational-level norms related to work expectations and social relationships, as well as work-family conflict, on job stress and subjective health symptoms. The research, conducted among 1,346 employees across 56 firms in the Norwegian food and beverage industry, considered these factors while controlling for Karasek's job demand-control-support model of the psychosocial work environment. Hierarchical linear modeling revealed that both organizational norms concerning work performance and social interactions, along with work-to-family and family-to-work conflicts, played significant roles in explaining job stress. Additionally, there was a notable cross-level interaction between work performance norms and work-to-family conflict in relation to job stress.
Pauksztat and Salin [80] explored the connection between exposure to bullying and employees' informal social relationships within their organization, utilizing data from surveys conducted across eight Finnish organizations. While employees' centrality had no bearing on bullying exposure, targets of bullying reported an increase in friendship relationships but not negative ones, suggesting potential moderation of aggressive responses in real-world settings compared to experiments. This research deepens our understanding of workplace bullying's impact on employees' social connections.
2.11. Digital Nomadism and Social Impact
Hall et al. [81] explored the evolving landscape of business tourism, which has been influenced by the emergence of digital nomads (DNs) in today's increasingly digital and globalized world. While both the tourism industry and governmental bodies actively seek to attract DNs, the existing knowledge often portrays only the glamorous aspects of DN life, leaving the challenges overlooked. This study takes a retrospective autoethnographical approach, providing a comprehensive understanding of DN life. It draws insights from extensive data based on the lead researcher's personal experience as a DN, revealing motivations, mobility patterns, and work practices within this lifestyle. Furthermore, the research discusses the implications of these findings for tourism practitioners and suggests directions for future research in this field.
Cook [82] delves into how digital nomads reconcile their pursuit of 'freedom' with their interactions with state institutions. It scrutinizes how these self-proclaimed 'global citizens' strive to loosen their connections with nation-states and challenge state-citizen dynamics in realms like work, citizenship, and mobility. While digital nomads may outwardly appear to break the traditional 'social contract' through borderless identities or transnational businesses, they find themselves intricately intertwined with state institutions in practice, directly or via corporate entities, in their quest for 'freedom.' This article explores their efforts to 'opt-out' or renegotiate the social contract, highlighting the tension between their idealized social contract and the realities shaped by global corporations, free markets, and entrepreneurial perspectives.
Matsushita [83] delves into the concept of "workation" in Japan, which differs from the digital nomad workstyle. Japanese workation is seen as a catalyst for revitalizing local industries, including entrepreneurship and tourism, and contributes to labor management and human resource development in companies. The chapter explores how local communities embrace workation and its impact on the economic and social fabric of these areas. Drawing on a case study involving Nulab Inc. and Higashikawa Town, conducted in January 2020 through in-depth interviews and participant observations, this research highlights how workations stimulate the discovery and development of "secondary tourism resources." These resources include unique attractions and specialties that enhance the local appeal for 1–2 week stays, serving as a motivating force for companies and workers to actively engage in the social development of these regions.
Aroles et al. [84] delves into the concept of "meta-work," often overlooked but essential in professional life, with a focus on digital nomads. Using qualitative online content analysis, it explores how digital nomads engage in various forms of meta-work, such as resource mobilization, articulation, transition, and migration work. It highlights the unique nature of meta-work in the context of continuous global mobility, challenging common perceptions of digital nomadism as an easily attainable, glamorous lifestyle.
Atanasova et al. [85] discussed two contrasting perspectives on how time relates to status: one linking status to busyness and the lack of time, and the other associating status with the luxury of slowness. However, this chapter delves deeper into consumers' perceptions of time and introduces the concept of "temporal privilege" as a marker of status. Temporal privilege is achieved through a rejection of hyper-productivity and the assertion of temporal control. It represents a novel way to signify status, focusing on the ability to break free from binary temporal norms and enjoy abundant free time. This concept adds a fresh dimension to the discourse on time and status in the context of digitalization and fluid lifestyles.
Loryn [86] investigated the preferences and requirements of digital nomads, individuals who work online from various global locations, for coworking spaces. It explores their expectations regarding amenities and community aspects in such spaces, as well as their willingness to pay for these services. Conducted through interviews with 19 digital nomads and three coworking space employees in Chiang Mai, Thailand, in 2019, the study identifies key factors like ergonomic furnishings, a sense of community, work-play balance, and flexible payment options as significant considerations for digital nomads seeking coworking spaces. These findings hold relevance for both pre and post-COVID-19 eras, as remote work continues to gain prominence and businesses seek to attract a diverse clientele to their coworking facilities.
Liegl and Bender [87] explored how these new mobility practices are accompanied by a heightened awareness of one's physical surroundings, referred to as the "care of place." This phenomenon is particularly relevant in digitally nomadic work, where individuals manage their productivity and creativity through mobility and a mindful consideration of their physical environment.
Jiwasiddi et al. [88] witnessed significant growth in this trend. However, its impact on local communities remains understudied. This case study in Chiang Mai aims to uncover the multifaceted effects of digital nomadism, encompassing economic, socio-cultural, and environmental dimensions. These findings can guide local communities and governments in making informed decisions about accommodating digital nomads.
2.12. Balancing Social Problems and Opportunities
Gugenheimer [89] introduced a novel interaction scenario, allowing users to immerse themselves in VR experiences anywhere, anytime (nomadic VR). While initial research focused on stationary setups, my research adopts a user-centered design approach. I develop research prototypes to address challenges in nomadic VR, particularly related to input and feedback, and evaluate them through user studies.
Chen and Nath [90] embracing a nomadic culture is essential for organizations aiming to harness the competitive advantages offered by ubiquitous computing technologies. Nomadic culture is characterized by its artifacts, beliefs, and fundamental assumptions, as defined based on an established model of organizational culture. The authors furnish managers with a set of questions to facilitate an internal cultural audit within their organizations, enabling them to assess and potentially shift towards a more nomadic cultural paradigm.
Wang et al. [91] represents a growing movement that challenges conventional market economy norms, facilitated by technology. However, it's essential to acknowledge that digital nomads still engage with the market economy in various ways. This paper offers a research framework that draws from historical perspectives on the complex relationship between technology and the market economy. Preliminary fieldwork has identified five emerging trends among digital nomads: collaborative creative consumption, self-regulated work, reimagined work materials, cross-jurisdictional opportunities, and de facto citizenship without regulation. These trends carry both theoretical and practical implications, shaping ongoing research in this area.
Kaplan and Haenlein [92] addresses the concept of Social Media, a topic of significant interest to business executives and consultants. It aims to provide clarity on what Social Media entails, differentiating it from related concepts like Web 2.0 and User Generated Content. The article categorizes Social Media applications into distinct groups, including collaborative projects, blogs, content communities, social networking sites, virtual game worlds, and virtual social worlds. It concludes by offering ten pieces of advice for companies considering the use of Social Media, providing valuable insights for decision-makers in this digital age.
Chen and Nath [93] delves into the complex challenge of creating effective mobile work environments within organizations. It adopts a socio-technical perspective, recognizing the interdependence of social and technical systems in this context. Through interviews with ten Chief Information Officers (CIOs), the research identifies key elements within the social and technical subsystems pertinent to mobile work. Furthermore, it offers a set of recommendations aimed at enhancing mobile work environments within organizations, leveraging the socio-technical approach to achieve better outcomes in this evolving landscape.
Mark and Su [94] reexamines Mark Weiser's 1991 concept of seamlessly integrated computing, focusing on nomadic workers who heavily rely on mobile technologies for their work. Drawing from Star and Ruhleder's 1996 framework on infrastructure properties, the research explores the unique challenges faced by nonroutine users of infrastructure. Through ethnographic investigation within a large distributed organization, the study examines how nomadic workers assemble their mobile offices, seek resources, and coordinate with colleagues across different time zones. The findings highlight the need for infrastructure visibility until pervasive computing aligns with Weiser's vision and discuss implications for supporting nomadic work through design.
Orel [95] investigates how parents working on flexible schedules utilize coworking spaces to achieve a better work-life balance and manage work-family conflicts. Employing a qualitative approach, the research combines participant observation in European coworking spaces with unstructured interviews of flexible-working parents. The findings highlight that coworking spaces serve as ideal workplaces for such individuals, offering stability, social networking opportunities, emotional support, increased productivity, and knowledge exchange. This study contributes to understanding the intersection of flexible work arrangements, family responsibilities, and coworking environments, filling a gap in current research.
2.13. New Job Markets and Business Models
Wisskirchen et al. [96] presents a dual impact on employment. On one hand, it poses risks with the potential displacement of jobs, particularly in lower-skilled sectors. On the other hand, it offers opportunities for increased productivity and innovation, creating new job roles in AI-related fields. The outcome depends on how AI is integrated and managed in the workplace, with the potential for both job loss and job creation, necessitating careful planning and adaptation in the workforce.
Rahman and Thelen [97] delves into the evolving landscape of 21st-century capitalism, shedding light on the political alliances and institutional frameworks that underpin it. While existing research often focuses on market and technological factors, this article underscores the pivotal role of political forces in reshaping traditional consolidated firms into platform-oriented ones. It also draws attention to how US political-economic institutions have uniquely shaped this transformation, amplifying economic inequalities, when viewed in a global context.
Andreassen et al. [98] explores triadic business models, known as T-models, and their value creation for suppliers, platform firms, and buyers. Using empirical examples from Uber and drawing from existing literature, the paper introduces the T-model as a sustainable business archetype for two-sided markets mediated by middlemen. It highlights that value in T-models comes from various sources, not just lower transaction costs, and suggests that T-models will coexist with traditional multi-divisional models, with technology potentially reducing the need for middlemen in the future.
Prause [99] emphasizes the significance of Industry 4.0 in maintaining Europe's industrial competitiveness, as it promotes smart production and logistics. Traditional industrial companies are transitioning towards 3D printing, networked production, and smart logistics while adopting new business models. Successful companies are shifting towards service design, open innovation, and network approaches. The fusion of the virtual and physical worlds in Industry 4.0 necessitates innovative information and business administration concepts. Estonia's "e-Residency" concept is discussed as a suitable e-business approach, particularly for globally operating entrepreneurs and SMEs, providing insights into sustainable business models for Industry 4.0.
Gephart [100] offers insights into organizational behavior in the digital era and sets the stage for the Special Issue on Brave New Workplace. It reviews literature related to new work trends, new workers, and the changing workplace landscape in the context of broader societal shifts. The paper delves into key themes like electronic work, self-management, individualized risks, and changing gender dynamics in the workplace and at home. It also explores the social implications of these changes on families, gender relations, and communities, providing an overview of the Special Issue's contributions.
Torsello [101] investigates the behavior and values of Generation Y workers in the workplace. It uses empirical research to address questions related to organizational culture, societal values, and the perception of ideal vs. real workplaces among millennials. The study reveals that when generational values clash with organizational culture, attrition rates increase. The paper suggests practical implications for improving employee relations, particularly in bridging the preferences of Generation X and Y workers. It highlights the importance of understanding generational aspects in the context of employee relations and leadership.
Urciuoli [102] delves into the neoliberal framework of contemporary capitalism, where a worker's value hinges on their skills, particularly those related to communication, teamwork, and leadership. These skills terminologies serve as tools to shape a person's identity and social behavior into productive labor. Notably, skills terms exhibit strategic indexicality, aligning with corporate values, and denotational indeterminacy, as they encompass a wide range of knowledge and practices. Despite this diversity, they are assumed to be interchangeable and teachable, as observed in discourses promoting skills commodification through online services.
2.14. Workplace Culture and Social Structure
Schooler [103] explores cross-national variations in individual values, attitudes, and behaviors and seeks to understand the underlying factors driving these differences. It reviews the findings of four significant sociological research programs that investigate these variations. The research suggests that social-structural conditions linked to industrialization play a crucial role in shaping individuals' openness to new experiences, rejection of traditional authority, and rational, ambitious, and orderly approaches to work and life. These findings highlight the interplay of culture and social structure in shaping cross-national differences in values and behaviors.
Spreitzer [104] presents a comprehensive model of intrapersonal empowerment in the workplace, where empowerment serves as a mediator between the social structural context and behavioral outcomes. The research examines middle managers in a Fortune 50 company and uses regression analyses to investigate the mediating role of intrapersonal empowerment. The results indicate that intrapersonal empowerment mediates the relationship between certain aspects of the workplace context and innovativeness but not effectiveness. However, intrapersonal empowerment is directly linked to effectiveness, as perceived by the managers' subordinates. The study discusses implications, limitations, and potential avenues for future research.
Hochschild [105] introduces the concept of emotion management, viewing emotions as something individuals can consciously control or regulate to align with social expectations. It adopts an interactive perspective, distinct from the dramaturgical and psychoanalytic viewpoints, to examine the interplay between emotional experiences, emotion management, feeling rules, and ideology. Feeling rules are regarded as a facet of ideology pertaining to emotions, and emotion management involves the effort to conform to these rules. The essay suggests that middle-class families tend to emphasize emotion management more than working-class families, contributing to the perpetuation of class distinctions.
Evans and Davis [106] presents a theoretical framework that examines how high-performance work systems (HPWS) can impact organizational performance through their influence on the internal social structure of the organization. HPWS promote a positive internal social structure by fostering factors like bridging network ties, generalized reciprocity norms, shared mental models, role adaptation, and organizational citizenship behavior. While HPWS comprise various HR practices, each category of these practices has a distinct relationship with the mediating variables. HPWS contribute to financial performance through administrative efficiency and sustainable performance through flexibility gained from coordinating and utilizing knowledge resources.
Cohen [107] investigates how unethical conduct within a workplace can emerge when management prioritizes achieving goals over adhering to legitimate procedures. The paper draws on Robert Merton's social structure and anomie theory to underpin this argument. It also examines significant factors influencing the ethical atmosphere within organizations. In light of this analysis, the paper suggests strategies for modifying and cultivating aspects of organizational culture to mitigate anomie, fostering work environments that deter unethical behavior and offer employees constructive means of addressing ethical dilemmas.
Aquino and Lamertz [108] introduces a model outlining how interactions between employees occupying one of four distinct social roles within organizations can result in episodic or institutionalized victimization patterns. The model underscores how victimization involving these four role types is shaped by organizational factors like power dynamics, culture, and access to social capital. By integrating behavioral and social structural factors as antecedents, the model offers a relational perspective on understanding harmful behavior dynamics in the workplace.
Frick and Marx [109] explores the impact of the digitization of work on both individuals and organizations, particularly focusing on the concept of 'digital nomadism.' While many individuals are embracing the opportunity to work independently of location and time, organizations are still grappling with how to adapt to this shift in employee preferences. Through expert interviews with industry executives, the study uncovers previously unidentified managerial, organizational, and technological challenges and incentives related to integrating digital nomads into corporate structures. It highlights the paradoxical attitudes of managers who support flexible working models but resist cultural change.
Cook [110] examines the evolving concept of digital nomadism, especially in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has made remote work mainstream. Drawing on scientific literature and ethnographic fieldwork, it redefines and classifies contemporary digital nomadism into five types: freelance digital nomads, digital nomad business owners, salaried digital nomads, experimental digital nomads, and armchair digital nomads. It also introduces six variable themes to analyze these classifications, including autonomy over mobility, homebase practices, travel patterns, legal aspects, work-life balance, and coworking space usage. This framework aids future research and policy analysis in understanding digital nomadism's nuances and impacts.
Carvalho et al. [111] explores the concept of infrastructuring within the context of technologically mediated nomadic work, often referred to as Tech Nomadism or T-Nomadism. It highlights the critical role of infrastructures, including technological, human, and environmental components like Wi-Fi, support, and workspace, in facilitating nomadic work. The study investigates how digital technologies help re-establish these infrastructures to meet the evolving needs of T-Nomads. The findings emphasize the dynamic and context-dependent nature of nomadic work and extend our understanding of infrastructuring in complex collaborative initiatives, such as organizing the European Social Forum.
2.15. Contrasting Digital Nomad Workplace Culture with Traditional Models
Simon and Koci [112] focuses on creating a competency model tailored for Digital Nomads and assessing its applicability within Czech culture. The study combines both primary and secondary data sources. Secondary data is derived from relevant literature, while primary data is collected through interviews and questionnaires. The research employs quantitative methods to evaluate components of a cross-cultural competency model and qualitative research to align the Digital Nomad experience with this model. The study encompasses data collection, analysis, competency evaluation, identification, and model development, addressing various dimensions, categories, and elements of cross-cultural competence specific to Digital Nomads.
Green [113] explores the phenomenon of digital nomadism, where individuals blend work, leisure, and extensive travel with the help of digital technology. Based on ethnographic research conducted in Chiang Mai, Thailand, the study delves into the lifestyle and mobility patterns of digital nomads, considering two forms of disruption. One form reflects a radical embrace of flexibility and newness, while the other deals with subtler disruptions related to historical work and tourism norms, complicating the establishment of a coherent self-identity and work routine in tourism destinations. These lifestyle practices raise questions about boundaries and identity amid diverse mobility pathways.
Yang et al. [114] conducts a literature review of coworking spaces, examining their concept, characteristics, and objectives. It introduces three coworking space models – revenue, synergistic, and customer contact – that organizations can incorporate into their corporate real estate strategies to enhance workplace flexibility and resilience. The study identifies research gaps and outlines a research agenda for future investigations in this field. Coworking spaces are projected to expand globally due to the knowledge-based economy and digital nomadism, yet there's limited research on how spatial and operational features affect users' collaboration, social well-being, and creativity, and the distinctions between various coworking space types remain underexplored.
Heicks [115] delves into the impact of digital nomadism on individuals' perceptions of home. It explores how the mobile lifestyle of digital nomads shapes their understanding of home, taking into account their quest for home, the significance of location choices, and home-building strategies. Through in-depth interviews, the study reveals that digital nomads construct their sense of home based on location-specific features, amenities, strategies for creating a home-like environment, and social connections. These feelings coexist with their strong desire for mobility, indicating a dynamic and evolving relationship with the concept of home.
Hentunen [116] investigates the digital nomad phenomenon, which has surged during the COVID-19 pandemic, focusing on the emergence of digital nomad visas and Estonia's pioneering role in this area. The study reveals that digital nomadism is growing and diversifying, necessitating better support and visa options for this group. Estonia stands out as a leader in facilitating digital nomadism through its comprehensive digital infrastructure. Digital nomad visas have the potential for mutual economic benefit and require further exploration.
Leung and Cossu [117] investigates the role of digital entrepreneurship in East Asia, particularly in Taiwan and Thailand, within the context of informal work. It highlights how digital entrepreneurs in this region aspire to Western neoliberal ideals but often face precarious career prospects. The transition to the digital economy has expanded the informal sector. Governments and elites encourage start-up ecosystems, potentially luring the creative class into precarious work or attempting to integrate informal businesses into the formal economy. The article explores these dynamics within two contrasting cases.
2.16. Effects on Social Structures and Working Life
Westley [118] delves into the issues stemming from the factory system and explores potential modern solutions. The problems faced by workers are categorized into political (insecurity), economic (inequity), psychological (alienation), and sociological (anomie) challenges. The paper then analyzes individual remedies like worker directors, profit sharing, job enrichment, and sociotechnical design in their ability to address these problems. A distinction is made between job enrichment, which addresses psychosocial expectations, and sociotechnical design, which fosters a cultural work environment.
Ferriss [119] emphasizes the importance of demographic and social structures within a community or society in shaping interactions, satisfaction levels, subjective well-being, and overall quality of life. It references studies that utilize elements of social structure to identify factors contributing to life satisfaction. The paper presents ten propositions outlining theoretical relationships between social structural features and well-being. Additionally, it offers recommendations for modifying the social structure to enhance the quality of life.
Granovetter [120] delves into the impact of social structures and networks on economic outcomes, including hiring, pricing, productivity, and innovation. Sociologists have developed fundamental principles regarding the interplay of social structure, information, trust, and incentives, frequently applied to analyze political, economic, and other institutions. The chapter explores how network structure can be integrated into labor market analysis and highlights the powerful influence of social structures and networks on innovation and its diffusion. The impact of personal relationships on pricing depends on factors like the relationship quality, switching costs, and market conditions.
Gallie [121] examines the impact of government and industry policies on the quality of working life in European countries. While Scandinavian countries, particularly Denmark and Sweden, have emphasized these issues more prominently, it was unclear whether these policy differences translated into actual differences in the work experience. Using data from a European Union survey, the study compared employees' perceptions of various work-related factors. The results suggest that Scandinavian countries do exhibit distinctive patterns, with employees reporting higher-quality work tasks and greater opportunities for participation, aligning with the policy orientations of these nations.
Ollier-Malaterre and Foucreault [122] offers guidance for cross-national research on the work-life interface, addressing the challenges of theoretical clarity and operationalization in this field. It conducts a comprehensive interdisciplinary review of the influence of country-level cultural factors (shared values, assumptions, and beliefs) and structural factors (legal, economic, and social) on individual experiences of work-life balance and organizational support for nonwork activities. The article identifies key cultural dimensions and structural factors, suggests ways to access relevant data, and outlines a research agenda to explore underresearched aspects of cross-national work-life research.
O’Brien [123] discusses the disruptive impact of information and communication technologies (ICTs) on social interactions, with a focus on mobile phones and mobile media. It explores the concept of "techno-spaces," where individuals are physically present but absorbed in a technologically mediated world. The article examines the evolving nature of work practices in these spaces and their impact on the traditional concept of the "third place," such as cafes. It also considers the implications of increased mobile media use in public spaces for personal identities and work-life balance.
Thompson [124] delves into the employment patterns of digital nomads, who work remotely while traveling. It examines the types of work these individuals engage in, with a focus on interviews with 38 digital nomads, predominantly from affluent nations. Despite their educational achievements, many face underemployment and engage in part-time or gig work. The article highlights the precarious nature of this lifestyle, with few benefits like healthcare or retirement, challenging the notion of "freedom" associated with gig work.
Ingvarsson [125] explores the concept of connectivity among digital nomads, who work while traveling without a fixed workplace. It delves into how these individuals establish and sever connections, both within and outside of work. Through interviews and grounded theory analysis, the study identifies six themes that describe the patterns of connection and disconnection among digital nomads. It emphasizes that connectivity is shaped by sociomaterial factors beyond individual communication through technology, contributing to the understanding of connectivity and the role of digital nomads in socio-technical systems.
2.17. Digital Nomadism and Globalization
Fischer [126] explores the evolving concept of nomadism in anthropological research within the context of globalization. It challenges traditional definitions of nomads as solely pastoralists who move within specific territories. Instead, it highlights the dynamic nature of nomadism, encompassing both rural and urban lifestyles, and how globalization has interconnected nomadic societies with the global economy. The chapter emphasizes the need for a more holistic definition of nomadism that considers cultural, economic, and geographical aspects in anthropology.
Parreño-Castellano et al. [127] explores the emergence of digital nomads in Spain, driven by the dynamics of digital capitalism and globalization. Despite the pandemic's impact on various forms of mobility, digital nomadism in Spain remained relatively resilient. The research investigates digital nomads' characteristics and the policies aimed at attracting them during the health crisis. It draws from virtual platforms, social networks, collaborative workspaces, and specialized events for analysis. The findings reveal that digital nomadism is not limited to privileged individuals and resembles tourism in terms of international income disparities. Moreover, the consolidation of digital nomadism during the pandemic is attributed to destination-based tourism policies, which often overlook its sustainability concerns.
Jha et al. [128] delves into the expanding realm of digital nomadism, an increasingly relevant concept in today's technology-driven world. It explores the multifaceted aspects of digital nomad life, shedding light on different types of digital nomads, their distinctive lifestyles, and the daily challenges they encounter. Additionally, the paper offers innovative strategies to address these challenges, ultimately aiming to enhance the viability and success of the digital nomad lifestyle.
Fitzwater [129] delves into the evolving discourse surrounding digital nomadism, particularly influenced by the surge in remote work post-COVID. It intersects with broader discussions about the concept of the Global Citizen, which has persisted over time by adapting to changing educational paradigms. This complex subject has been examined through various lenses, including pedagogy, tourism, cosmopolitanism, consumerism, sustainability, and the Anthropocene. The chapter explores the tensions within global citizenship education and challenges posed by the Global Non-Citizen concept. It concludes by situating the global citizen within frameworks of neo-imperialism, belonging, and responsibility.
Canas [130] addressed multifaceted challenges to public entities, businesses, economies, legal systems, logistics, and HR departments. Adaptations are required to accommodate this evolving social demand. Emerging digital technologies like 5G, the metaverse, and AR may facilitate DN integration into workplaces. This thesis assesses the DN movement's progress and its impact on workplace dynamics. Currently, the influence on companies remains relatively modest, as DNs predominantly seek independent and freelancing opportunities, and businesses are not yet fully equipped to assimilate them as permanent employees.
Bonneau [131] delves into the complexities of identity work processes in certain professions, particularly those less understood and lacking institutional reference points, such as digital nomadism. Digital nomads are professionals who pursue highly mobile work to blend travel with remote work opportunities. Using a two-stage data collection approach, the paper introduces a typology that outlines four archetypes of online narratives promoted by digital nomad lifestyle advocates. It explores how these narratives influence the identity formation of other digital nomads, emphasizing their role in identity regulation through dis-identification. Additionally, the paper presents a three-step reflexive process involving interpretation, dis-identification, and contextualization, demonstrating how digital nomads assess discursive subjectivities. These findings have broader implications for understanding work identity in emerging occupations romanticized and commercialized through social media and beyond.
Valenduc [132] explored the extent to which the rapid advancement of the digital economy is contributing to the political process of deconstructing traditional employment models and reshaping the definition of a 'worker.' It examines various recent innovations in the digitalization of the economy, including internet-based virtual work, on-demand work facilitated by online platforms, crowd working, and 'prosumer' work. These developments challenge several dimensions of the traditional employment relationship, such as the concept of the workplace, wage formation, working time definition and measurement, blurred reporting lines, workers' representation, and the broader concepts of work and solidarity.
2.18. Geographical Flexibility and Its Global Impact
D'Andrea [133] delves into a theoretical exploration of the connections between global hypermobility and the formation of subjectivity. Drawing from ethnographic research conducted among expatriates engaged in countercultural lifestyles within global circuits, the study underscores the cultural and conceptual significance of global nomadism. It also identifies limitations in existing approaches for studying fluid and metamorphic phenomena in global studies. By bridging anthropology and nomadology, the article introduces the concept of "neo-nomadism" as an ideal-type for examining the cultural impacts of hypermobility on self, identity, and social dynamics. The article includes methodological insights into nomadic ethnography and ultimately suggests that neo-nomadism serves as both a phenomenon and a conceptual framework for reevaluating models of subjectivity formation in the context of globalization.
Choudhury [134] synthesizes a broad spectrum of literature that investigates the ways in which the geographic mobility of high-skilled workers contributes to value creation for both organizations and individuals. It highlights the value generated through knowledge transfer, social capital exchange, adoption of organizational norms, financial capital flow, and skill development, along with opportunities for resource acquisition and wage growth. Additionally, the review addresses "geographic immobility" and introduces the concept of "geographic mobility frictions," encompassing regulatory, occupational/organizational, personal, and economic/environmental barriers that hinder geographic mobility. The paper proposes a research agenda exploring the impact of "geographic flexibility" and "work-from-anywhere" policies in leveraging geographic mobility and mitigating its frictions, while also considering how these policies may reshape future patterns of work and mobility.
Haan et al. [135] sheds light on the increasingly intricate and multifaceted patterns of Employment-Related Geographical Mobility (E-RGM) in Canada. It underscores the need for more comprehensive and systematic research into this phenomenon, which has significant implications for both employers and workers, including their families. While prior studies have predominantly concentrated on permanent relocations or short-distance daily commutes, the authors advocate for more in-depth research that dissects the socio-economic characteristics of individuals involved in E-RGM, unraveling its intricacies. By analyzing data from the 2006 Canadian confidential master file, the article paints a statistical portrait of E-RGM, revealing substantial variations within the Canadian working population, particularly among those engaged in extensive work-related journeys.
Terry [136] delves into the intriguing paradox faced by the cruise industry, characterized by a seemingly flexible and globalized labor market but plagued by potential labor shortages. Despite sourcing the majority of their workforce from labor-abundant regions in the Global South, cruise lines grapple with recruitment challenges. The paper examines this issue, focusing on the tension between the industry's demand for a flexible workforce and the necessity for skilled labor. It argues that the recruitment geography is influenced by the unique political, economic, and cultural circumstances of source countries, which affect the availability and attractiveness of certain worker cohorts. In practice, the need for both skill and flexibility doesn't always align, revealing geographic limitations to labor market flexibility. The research draws from interviews with stakeholders involved in cruise ship work and labor recruitment, with a particular emphasis on Filipino cruise ship workers and recruiters to shed light on labor recruitment dynamics within the industry.
Askitas et al. [137] examines the effectiveness of various non-pharmaceutical interventions adopted by countries during the COVID-19 pandemic and their socioeconomic consequences. Using data from 175 countries, the study accounts for multiple interventions simultaneously and finds that canceling public events, restricting private gatherings, and closing schools and workplaces significantly reduced COVID-19 infections. In contrast, restrictions on internal movement and public transport had no additional effect because earlier policies had already reduced mobility. International travel restrictions had a limited impact, allowing the pandemic to spread. The study assesses each intervention's effectiveness based on its impact on human mobility behaviors and epidemiological factors.
Cresswell et al. [138] addresses the intersection of mobility studies and employment-related geographical mobility, highlighting that these fields have only recently begun to connect. Drawing from a Canadian interdisciplinary research project, the article aims to bridge the gap between the two areas. It revisits existing literature on migration, work, and political economy, explores new ways to conceptualize employment-related geographical mobility, and presents a case study from the Alberta Oil Sands. Ultimately, the article proposes an agenda for future research at the intersection of mobility and work.
Townsend et al. [139] rely on cutting-edge technology to connect members, offering a response to challenges such as downsizing, geographical dispersion of employees, and changing workforce demographics. Virtual teams enable organizations to assemble the best talent globally, maintain a flat organizational structure, access diverse expertise, foster cross-functional collaboration, and improve overall work quality.
Lin and Christiadi [140] aims to create a series of loglinear models that combine gravity models for interregional mobility with loglinear models for occupational mobility. The model's development starts with a basic analysis of a two-way mobility table and progresses to a three-way analysis that controls for one mobility aspect while exploring another. Ultimately, it evolves into a four-way analysis that simultaneously evaluates the combined impact of both occupational and geographic mobility. Using 1970 United States census data as an example, the models effectively demonstrate that interregional movers don't always exhibit strong occupational persistence. Notably, for female-dominated clerical occupations, interregional migration is linked to upward occupational mobility, with males consistently showing a greater propensity for upward mobility than females.
2.19. The Role of Digital Nomads in the Process of Globalization
Hannonen [141] explores the evolving lifestyle of digital nomads, individuals who combine work with travel and travel with work. This phenomenon is driven by societal changes, including the widespread use of technology and mobility in daily life and the increasing flexibility and precarious nature of employment. Despite its growing prevalence, digital nomadism lacks a common understanding and comprehensive perspective. The paper examines digital nomadism within the context of contemporary lifestyle-related mobilities and location-independent work to provide a holistic view. While the empirical studies on digital nomads are limited, the paper lays the foundation for further conceptualization and research in this field.
Lee et al. [142] explores the relationship between the rise of co-working and co-living spaces (referred to as "co-spaces") and the digital nomad lifestyle. Digital nomads leverage digital technology to live and work without being tied to a specific location. The study uses Oldenburg's framework of first (home), second (work), and third (social) places to analyze how digital nomads perceive and utilize different types of spaces. The research is based on an analysis of posts and comments from the '/r/digitalnomad' subreddit, where digital nomads discuss their experiences and seek advice. The findings reveal that digital nomads prioritize spaces based on their ability to either separate or merge their work and social lives. Some prefer spaces that enhance work productivity, while others focus on achieving work-life balance. The study also highlights the connection between the concept of a "third place" and the emerging idea of social infrastructure. Overall, it sheds light on how sociotechnical systems, such as co-spaces, influence the evolving ways people live and interact with technology in the digital age.
Prester et al. [143] delves into the transformations occurring in the realm of work due to digitalization, leading to increased uncertainty and fluidity in work structures and identities. Focusing on digital worker identity, the study examines the case of digital nomadism, where high-skilled professionals leverage digital technologies to work remotely and lead nomadic lives. Through a multi-sited ethnographic field study, the research unveils that digital nomad identity is a dynamic process characterized by three lines of identity performance: journeying, workliving, and digital reassembling. These lines collectively form the foundation of a process-relational theory of digital worker identity.
Nash [144] challenges the notion that digital nomadic work is entirely location-independent by emphasizing the significance of spaces in shaping the work practices of digital nomads. By conducting interviews with 23 digital nomads and analyzing workspace images from Twitter, the research sheds light on the intricate relationship between these spaces, work routines, and technologies. It highlights that the ability to work from "anywhere, anytime" overlooks the substantial impact of physical spaces on mobile work, contributing to a deeper understanding of mobility versus location independence and the importance of spaces for mobile workers.
Almeida et al. [145] presents new findings from an ongoing study that explores how the unique characteristics associated with "wannabe" digital nomads' activities contribute to the sustainability of the broader digital nomad ecosystem. The research focuses on understanding the effects on personal knowledge management practices and routines of digital nomads, particularly among Reddit users. It also delves into the technology-mediated work-life preferences and expectations of this online community, which play a crucial role in shaping the digital nomad community.
Jarrahi et al. [146] discusses the rise of flexible work arrangements, such as freelancing and digital nomadism, which provide workers with autonomy but also come with uncertainties and risks. It introduces the concept of Personal Digital Infrastructures (PDIs), individualized collections of tools and technologies used by flexible workers. These PDIs are crucial for adapting to the changing work landscape, and integrating them into information and communication technology (ICT) systems is essential for making flexible work arrangements mutually beneficial. The text emphasizes the need for responsive PDI management and ICT system design to support flexible workers effectively.
2.20. Workplace Flexibility Needs of Employers
Sheridan and Conway [147] motivated by organizations seeking numerical and functional flexibility (the business case for flexibility) rather than aiming to support employees in achieving work-life balance (the equal opportunities case for flexibility). This distinction between the two approaches has created significant challenges for both employees and organizations, limiting their potential for growth. To make part-time employment an effective organizational strategy, human resource management (HRM) must actively mediate between the differing needs of employers and employees. This involves openly addressing both parties' needs, recognizing their disparities, and working towards mutually beneficial solutions.
Rubery et al. [148] challenges the commonly held belief that flexible labor markets offer a panacea for various labor market and societal challenges. While such markets are often seen as a means to address issues like job creation, workforce segmentation reduction, welfare dependency reduction, improved public finances, and increased diversity and innovation, this perspective argues that they bring about inherent contradictions and unsustainable trends.
Pitt-Catsouphes and Matz-Costa [149] investigates the perceptions of employees from different age groups regarding their need for workplace flexibility (flexibility fit) and how it influences their work engagement. It analyzes data from 22 different companies, encompassing 49,209 observations representing 183,454 employees. The study employs a hierarchical linear model (HLM) to understand the relationship between flexibility fit, age, and employee engagement. The findings reveal that flexibility fit positively correlates with engagement for all employees, with a more pronounced effect among those aged 45 and older. This underscores the importance of flexibility in retaining the engagement of older workers who wish to prolong their careers.
Bean and Hamilton [150] delves into the responses of technology-enabled nomadic workers to a downsizing event at Telenor, a major Norwegian telecom company, in 2002. It observes that these workers, who embrace flexible work practices and varied work locations, had contrasting interpretations of the company's restructuring. The absence of clear geographic boundaries within the organization significantly shaped their sensemaking. Nomadic workers adopted diverse frames of reference, leading to distinct interpretations and actions. The article highlights the need for more research into how alternative workplaces impact behavior and human processes.
Ferreira et al. [151] explores the impact of digital technologies on nomadic leisure practices, specifically focusing on long-distance cycling. Through interviews with eleven participants, it reveals how digital tools shape and structure bike touring as a nomadic leisure activity. This departure from traditional work and life structures complicates the relationship between work and leisure. The study also highlights how participants manage the uncertainties of nomadic life, particularly in arranging accommodations and network hospitality. It contributes to diversifying empirical cases in understanding nomadic work and leisure practices, shedding light on the temporal and spatial aspects influenced by digital technologies and how they influence the work-leisure dynamic.
Carvalho et al. [152] revealed that nomadicity is a dynamic process that arises as individuals engage in practices that enable them to work across various locations. This paper further explores this process by examining the range of motivational and contextual factors that influence and shape nomadic practices. It extends existing CSCW literature by shedding light on the intricate interplay between motives and contexts that define nomadic work. The findings are based on an ethnographic study of academics and their nomadic work-life practices.
2.21. The Emergence of Digital Nomads in the New Digital Era
Stumpf et al. [153] aims to enrich Information Systems (IS) literature by delving into the entrepreneurial dimension of digital nomadism, termed "digital nomad entrepreneurship" (DNE). While previous research has often examined DNE from either a lifestyle or business perspective, this study employs grounded theory to explore the intricate interplay between lifestyle and business factors that shape an individual's journey into becoming a digital nomad entrepreneur.
Purgat [154] discussed the emergence of "digital nomads" in the context of technological advancements and changing lifestyles. Digital nomads blend earning income with their passion for travel and independence. The study explores this phenomenon, comparing digital nomad behaviors with entrepreneurial traits. It emphasizes that successful digital nomads exhibit entrepreneurial characteristics, highlighting the need for a combination of business acumen and a nomadic lifestyle to thrive in this unique employment trend shaped by technology and personal preferences.
Ciolfi and Carvalho [155] discusseed "nomadicity" in contemporary work practices, emphasizing its detachment from a fixed location and its reliance on digital resources. It distinguishes between "mobility" as physical movement and "nomadicity" as the movement of resources to enable work in various locations. The concept is associated with fluidity in knowledge-based work and motivated by choice, opportunity, or obligation. The special issue's articles explore different aspects and motivations related to working in diverse locations, contributing to a nuanced understanding of nomadicity.
Aroles et al. [156] highlights that 'new' is always relative and tied to technological innovation, specifically digitalization, encompassing spatiotemporal, technological, and socio-cultural dimensions. The special issue aims to deepen our understanding of the ongoing trends in work flexibilization, virtualization, and mediation. It also explores how the COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated NWW, potentially leading to unexpected consequences, including a shift away from traditional work structures.
Bean and Eisenberg [157] delves into a qualitative study focused on employees' sensemaking during a significant organizational transformation. The study investigates a major shift in work practices, transitioning from traditional office-based work to a new paradigm known as "nomadic work." Nomadic work emphasizes worker mobility within and outside the company premises, paperless operations, and integrated technological platforms for knowledge work and flexible, project-based organization. The research methodology includes participant observation and interviews, collecting employees' accounts of their experiences during the implementation of this transformative change.
Zenkteler et al. [158] explores the spatial impact of digital and remote work practices on suburban areas. It focuses on a design charrette conducted in the City of Gold Coast, Australia, to address this knowledge gap. The research reveals that remote workers, despite often working independently, prefer urban design interventions that promote multi-use spaces in suburban areas. These strategies can enhance collaboration, foster innovation, create new communal spaces, and strengthen a city's competitive edge by accommodating evolving work practices in residential neighborhoods.
2.22. Implications as Indicators of Social Structural Changes
Crawford [159] investigates the impact of remote and mobile work on the health and well-being of workers in the UK and Ireland. With an estimated 1 million individuals engaged in this type of work, the research aims to identify any potential health or psychosocial effects associated with such work arrangements. It also explores ergonomic factors that affect this group and assesses the influence of organizational or management factors. A systematic review approach was employed, involving keyword-based searches in electronic databases and websites, followed by data extraction and quality assessment of relevant papers.
Wiklund [160] outlines the concept of well-being and its connection to entrepreneurship, defining entrepreneurial well-being as satisfaction, positive emotions, low negative emotions, and psychological functioning in the context of entrepreneurial activities. It reviews research developments in this area and highlights emerging trends, setting the stage for eight papers in a special issue exploring the relationship between entrepreneurship and well-being from various perspectives.
Bakolis [161] developed the smartphone-based tool Urban Mind to study how exposure to natural elements in urban environments impacts mental well-being in real time. They monitored 108 individuals who completed over 3,000 assessments in a week. The study found immediate and lasting positive effects on mental well-being associated with various natural features. These effects were more pronounced in individuals with higher trait impulsivity, indicating a greater vulnerability to mental health issues. These findings have implications for global mental health and urban planning.
Périssé [162] focused on the influence of perceived social approval from colleagues and managers on the adoption of remote and mediatised work practices, particularly in nomadic and informal work settings. Using a questionnaire survey, the research found that employees tend to prefer using smartphones and laptops for work. The impact of perceived social approval varied depending on the technologies used and had implications for organizational commitment, recognition, work-life balance perceptions, and addiction-related behaviors. These findings raise questions about the "right to disconnect" and the need for support and supervision in nomadic and informal work practices.
Savić [163] delves into the significant changes brought about by the global COVID-19 pandemic in the realm of work practices. With the pandemic rendering traditional office spaces less relevant and safe, remote work from home became a necessity for businesses and employees alike. This abrupt shift prompted an accelerated digital transformation of the workforce and reshaped the work environment in an unprecedented manner. The mass adoption of telecommuting emerged as a critical response to the virus outbreak, with remote work becoming the new norm for many organizations. Savić's paper explores the profound impact of the pandemic on the surge in demand for work-from-home arrangements and the subsequent push for a digital workforce transformation. It sheds light on how the pandemic has reshaped the way we work and the technological changes it has spurred in the modern workforce.
Kobayashi and Viswat [164] investigates the evolution of intercultural communication competence in Japanese and American business professionals over time. Drawing from interviews with individuals who have engaged in business interactions with the other culture, the study analyzes how these groups perceive each other's cultures, adapt to the rapidly changing times, and make concessions to enhance the effectiveness of their business dealings. Insights gleaned from the experiences of successful businesspeople and lessons learned from past failures provide valuable guidance for those seeking success in international business contexts.
2.23. Psychosocial Effects of Digital Nomadism
Matsushita [165] embraced workcations, promoting interaction with local communities. This study, based in Tottori Prefecture, explores (1) government workcation policies, (2) emerging workcation services, and (3) hybrid work adoption in companies. Japanese-style workcations address urban population concentration, aging demographics, and tourism decline, offering a unique blend of tourism, social, and community design. However, the integration of digital nomadism poses a future challenge.
Devif et al. [166] delves into comprehending the psychosocial aspects and the impact of new workspace implementations. It delves into the definition of coworking spaces, outlining their initial objectives, characteristics, and user profiles and motivations. It examines their influence on work in terms of performance, productivity, social interaction, and the boundary between work and personal life. Coworking spaces foster tacit cooperation and community, combating isolation and nurturing relationships. Future research should explore the broader implications and challenges of coworking concerning work, quality of life, work-life balance, and coworker job security.
Barroso and Silva [167] explores how globalization has transformed backpacking into a lifestyle choice for young, creative adventurers seeking freedom and purpose. It investigates how coworking spaces, through Selina as a case study, foster connections and productivity within the context of digital nomadism. The research examines how Selina's organizational culture innovatively embraces coworking to attract digital nomads, highlighting the evolving landscape of the hospitality industry.
Almeida et al. [168] highlight the transformative impact of widespread remote work during the COVID-19 pandemic. This shift has emphasized work-life balance values among corporate employees while revealing tensions in gig and crowd work platforms. The authors suggest that ethnographic studies on digital nomads can provide valuable insights for researchers in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) and Computer-Supported Cooperative Work and Design (CSCWD). They propose a research agenda to explore the roles of digital nomads in emerging crypto-economic ecosystems, offering opportunities for innovative design solutions.
Bala [169] delves into the emergence of a cyber-culture facilitated by computers and high-speed internet, enabling individuals to work from virtually anywhere. This lifestyle, known as "digital nomadism," is characterized by expertise in a specific field and the ability to sell products or services online, granting individuals the freedom to choose their place of residence. The study explores the concept of eco-cities designed to accommodate digital nomads and their unique approach to life. Digital nomads prioritize experiences over possessions and adopt an ecological mindset that emphasizes minimal consumption. Understanding digital nomads offers insights into the evolving digital age and its impact on urban environments.
2.24. D i g i tal Nomads and Supply Cha i n
Andersson et al. [170] employed a human-centered design (HCD) approach involving community health volunteers (CHVs) to revamp the cStock digital solution for this challenging context. The process included understanding intent, research, ideation, and supply chain redesign. Insights covered supply chain, information systems, human resources, behavior, infrastructure, and connectivity. Four supply chain solutions were designed, tested, and refined. HCD incorporated CHV and community perspectives, making cStock inclusive and promising for enhancing healthcare access and well-being, particularly for women and children in nomadic communities.
Liu et al. [171] explored the role of Digital Technologies (DT) in facilitating Circular Economy (C.E.) business models, especially in the context of the Covid-19 pandemic. The circular economy, emphasizing recycling, reduction, reuse, and repair (4R's), aligns economic growth with environmental sustainability. Covid-19 disruptions prompted alternative resource utilization. The study investigates the impact of Covid-19 on technological innovation (T.I.), circular economy practices (CEP), and organizational performance (ORP) using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). Results indicate that Covid-19 significantly influenced the adoption of technological innovation and circular economy practices, ultimately affecting organizational performance. These findings offer insights for enhancing CEF-technology practices in developing Asian markets, with implications for businesses, policymakers, and researchers.
Chen et al. [172] delves into the mechanics of organizational Big Data Analytics (BDA) usage, focusing on two critical research inquiries: (1) How does organizational BDA usage impact value creation? and (2) What are the pivotal drivers of organizational-level BDA usage? It leverages dynamic capabilities theory to portray BDA as a distinctive information processing capability that bestows competitive advantage. Additionally, the technology–organization–environment (TOE) framework is employed to elucidate the pathways through which various factors influence BDA utilization. Survey data from 161 U.S. firms reveal that organizational-level BDA usage directly affects value creation, with its influence moderated by environmental dynamics. Technological factors exert a direct influence on BDA usage, while organizational and environmental factors indirectly shape it through top management support. These findings furnish a theory-based comprehension of the effects and precursors of organizational BDA usage, offering managerial insights into the potential outcomes of adopting this rapidly evolving technology.
Siriyanun et al. [173] explored the impact of workplace democracy on supply chain integration within Thailand's manufacturing sector. It also examines the mediating roles of high involvement HRM practices like employee incentives, skills, and participation. Data from middle management in Thailand's manufacturing sector was analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling. The results show that workplace democracy significantly enhances supply chain integration, with high involvement HR practices acting as significant mediators. This study contributes to the understanding of supply chain integrity and its relationship with democracy and high involvement practices, offering implications for future research.
Jermsittiparsert et al. [174] aims to explore the factors influencing supply chain employee safety behavior, with a focus on the mediating role of employee commitment. A survey involving 600 Indonesian supply chain employees yielded 350 responses, which were analyzed using partial least squares. The study identifies key determinants of supply chain employee safety behavior, including employees' conscientiousness and competency, emphasizing the significance of employee commitment for positive outcomes. This research contributes to our understanding of factors shaping supply chain employee safety behavior.
Cappelli [175] aim of preventing workforce shortages during times of need. However, it gradually declined as economic forecasting became more challenging, particularly due to events like the oil shocks and stagflation in the 1970s and early 1980s. This economic uncertainty led to inaccurate talent forecasts and layoffs, prompting many companies to reduce their investment in workforce planning and talent management.
Pacheco and Azevedo [176] explores the CoLiving experience of digital nomads, which blends work and life in unconventional home-like settings. Employing a qualitative approach, it analyzes in-depth interviews and visual narratives from 13 participants residing in Selina CoLive hotels. The study investigates information sources and motivators for CoLiving adoption, criteria for destination and space selection, and the emotional impact of the CoLiving experience. Additionally, it examines how CoLiving fosters a sense of community and place, often shared on social media platforms, contributing to electronic word-of-mouth.
Xue [177] aim of advancing digital nomadism in the future is to address its challenges and leverage the benefits of advanced technology for this community. It also seeks to explore new opportunities arising from post-pandemic lessons. Examining how nomadism will redefine work-life balance reflects a broader concept – the equilibrium between decentralization and globalization.
2.25. D i g i talnomads Chatbots
Androutsopoulou et al. [178] introduces an innovative approach and an accompanying ICT platform for leveraging chatbots in the public sector. It employs natural language processing, machine learning, and data mining to enable more expressive citizen-government interactions. This approach utilizes diverse data sources and has been validated through collaboration with Greek government agencies, offering improved communication and transaction capabilities for citizens compared to existing digital channels.
Petani and Mengis [179] highlights the overlooked aspects of Information Technology (IT) and physical/virtual workspaces in Human Resource Management (HRM). It introduces a framework acknowledging the significance of employees' actual experiences in IT-enabled hybrid workspaces. Drawing from information systems (IS) and organizational space literature, it offers insights for HRM practices and outlines potential research directions for understanding the dynamics of emerging hybrid workspaces and practices.
Wolff et al. [180] responds to the changing digital workplace environment by conducting a qualitative study involving 29 experts from diverse industries. The study identifies three primary chatbot usage scenarios and seven application areas within the digital workplace. Additionally, it uncovers fifteen fundamental objectives for chatbot operations, highlighting their potential in areas such as support, self-service, and information provision. Automation, workload reduction, and cost savings emerged as key objectives. These findings offer valuable practical insights for future research and fill gaps in understanding chatbot applications within digital workplaces, making a substantial contribution to this field.
Eißer et al. [181] driven by artificial intelligence and robotics, is transforming job roles, including recruitment. Chatbot systems offer potential automation in recruiting, potentially causing anxiety among recruiters about their job security. This study evaluates how automation anxiety affects the acceptance of chatbot technology in recruiting. It adapts the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) by replacing computer anxiety with automation anxiety (AANX). Preliminary findings from an 83-participant pre-study indicate that AANX significantly influences recruiters' chatbot acceptance, particularly through its positive associations with job relevance and perceived usefulness. However, recruiters generally focus more on the technology's opportunities than its potential drawbacks.
Gkinko and Elbanna [182] addresses the limitations of existing Information Systems studies on emotions in technology use, particularly regarding AI chatbots. It explores employees' emotional experiences with AI chatbots, highlighting the influence of technology design and organizational context on their emotional responses. In addition to typical positive and negative emotions, users also experience connection emotions, ultimately impacting their continued engagement with AI chatbots. The study employs an interpretive case study approach and inductive analysis, drawing data from interviews, document reviews, and usage observations.
Gkinko and Elbanna [183] focuses on workplace chatbot usage patterns and adopts an inductive approach to analyze the usage of a chatbot within a single organization. The findings reveal distinct usage patterns, leading to the development of a taxonomy categorizing chatbot users into four types based on specific criteria. This research represents a significant step toward comprehending chatbot utilization in the workplace, laying the foundation for future investigations.
Kopplin [184] utilizes the uses and gratifications approach to investigate chatbot acceptance among coworkers in coworking spaces. It delves into factors influencing technology acceptance, surveying 101 German coworkers through quantitative analysis. The findings highlight the significance of both instrumental and non-instrumental gratifications, along with social norms, in shaping chatbot acceptance. Social norms have a substantial impact, but they are not an absolute necessity. Privacy concerns, age, and gender do not significantly affect chatbot adoption. Coworking space providers should consider a standard chatbot solution that balances utility and hedonic expectations to leverage social norms effectively.
2.26. Critique towards the lifestyle of digital nomads
Gretzel and Hardy [185] investigates the emergence of #vanlife as a digital lifestyle characterized by extreme mobility, drawing connections to digital nomadism and comparing it with RVing/camping. Analyzing 200 Instagram posts through visual elements and hashtags, it explores the interplay between materiality and mobility in the context of vanlife. This study contributes valuable insights to the literature on mobility, digital nomadism, and online consumer tribes while also discussing its methodological and practical implications.
Orel [186] examines the transformation of the Thai hospitality industry driven by the presence of digital nomads, emphasizing the shift towards all-inclusive work-leisure services. It discusses how local infrastructure in various areas is adapting to accommodate this trend. The paper suggests the need for an empirical study to assess the effectiveness of different work-leisure hubs in meeting the demands and expectations of digital nomads.
Almeida et al. [187] presents findings from an empirical study investigating the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on digital nomads' work practices and lifestyles, using data from a Reddit community. It suggests that understanding the challenges faced by digital nomads during the pandemic can inform the design of technical solutions for the evolving work environment, providing valuable insights for CSCW researchers exploring future design approaches.
Tyutyuryukov and Guseva [188] examines various approaches adopted by countries to tax this group. While some opt for PAYE taxation, digital independent workers often prefer registering as sole proprietors or self-employed individuals, necessitating further research to address tax behavior, control, and double taxation concerns effectively.
Borges et al. [189] explores the impact of the COVID-19 crisis on shifting work and leisure preferences, with a growing number of professionals choosing remote work in tranquil settings. Portugal has emerged as an attractive destination for digital nomads, drawing longer-term tourists who actively engage with local communities. The study examines the growth and consequences of this tourism model in Portugal, emphasizing the benefits of its geographic location, affordability, quality services, and favorable climate. It sheds light on how Portugal is adapting to accommodate this trend, reshaping strategies in the hospitality sector to cater to the needs of digital nomads.
Bozzi [190] delves into the relationship between Instagram and digital nomads, examining it from a theoretical standpoint and critiquing the underlying aesthetics and urban politics. It positions digital nomads as symbols of contemporary neoliberalism, emphasizing a depoliticized work aesthetic through social media. The essay explores the concept of tagging, including geotagging, as a tool for cultural critique and discusses Instagram's role in the intersection between the entrepreneurial traveler's imagination and globalized gentrification's material impact. It provocatively suggests that Instagram could become a site for reshaping the digital nomad's culture and aesthetics.
Hemsley et al. [191] delve into the cultural intersections between contemporary work, technology usage, and physical mobility. Using network word co-occurrence analysis and topic modeling, we uncover various thematic areas on Twitter. These encompass worker identity, predominantly featuring digital nomad experiences, practical aspects of working in physical spaces, with a focus on co-working issues, and speculative ideas about the future of work. Our contribution lies in demonstrating how a rigorous analysis of Twitter data can unveil sub-thematic nuances and providing empirical evidence of semantic relationships within discussions about mobile work in the context of the future of work.
Lee et al. [192] focuses on the growing trend of co-working and co-living companies and their appeal to individuals from the gig economy. The research explores the unique requirements of digital nomads within these community-based spaces (co-spaces). It identifies and examines the tensions that can hinder digital nomads' social engagement in these settings, providing valuable insights into the challenges they face in co-space environments.
Luise [193] offers an empirical exploration of how knowledge workers in Thailand construct and enact digital nomad identities. It reveals that digital nomads perceive the lifestyle as a temporary stage in their life journey rather than a permanent identity. They frame it as a liminal transition towards a post-nomadic identity, but paradoxes and constraints can keep them in a prolonged liminal state.
McElroy [194] delves into the colonial aspects of contemporary digital nomadism, particularly examining the historical connections with the notion of "digital Gypsies." It traces the origins of this concept to 19th-century Western European imperialism and its Romantic Orientalist texts, which celebrated the free and wandering Gypsy as a symbol of colonial desires. The study explores how Silicon Valley's imperialism and digital advancements intersect with these nomadic fantasies, potentially perpetuating racial dispossession and gentrification through platforms like Airbnb. It also investigates the abstraction of nomadic fantasy over time and its relationship with posthumanist nomadic perspectives.
2.27. Digital nomads and corporates
Oleynikova [195] aims to comprehend millennial organizational behavior and investigate "smart management" approaches to optimize digital nomad work and integrate them into the formal economy. Combining theoretical analysis with empirical data, it becomes evident that millennials constitute a significant segment of the burgeoning digital nomad workforce, representing a portion of the contemporary shadow economy.
Holleran and Notting [196] investigates the responses of digital nomads (primarily individuals from the Global North engaged in remote work without a fixed residence) to the COVID-19 pandemic. Drawing from social media data and 37 in-depth interviews with digital nomads representing 16 countries, the study reveals that many in this cohort continued traveling as a means to preserve their identity and circumvent border closures and lockdowns. It delves into the strategies they employed to justify their mobility, manage feelings of guilt, evade potential shame, and deflect accusations of geographic and epidemiological selfishness. The article underscores the emergence of new geopolitical circumstances that posed challenges and opportunities for these travelers, prompting them to balance their mobility as a group identity while curtailing their social media presence to sidestep moral censure. Ultimately, it draws on Mimi Sheller's concept of mobility justice to suggest that mobility guilt may persist beyond the pandemic era.
Makimoto [197] emerged as a defining concept for a contemporary lifestyle unbound by the limitations of time and place, facilitated by advancements in mobile technology and high-speed communication networks. The book titled "Digital Nomad," authored by David Manners and a UK-based Electronics Weekly contributor, was initially published in English in 1997, followed by Japanese and Chinese editions the subsequent year. In Figure 1, images of the book covers and the authors are displayed.
Marx et al. [198] delves into the work identity of these "corporate nomads," examining the values and challenges that set them apart from the traditional digital nomad concept. Through identity theory and interviews, it introduces the corporate nomad archetype, shedding light on nine key identity issues, such as managing conflicting identities and navigating collaboration constraints. This contribution expands the Information Systems literature's perspective on remote work and socio-spatial aspects of knowledge work.
Syrbe [199] explores various topics, including Generation Z, Covid-19, Remote Work, Flexibility, Digital Nomadism, Control and Surveillance, and Corporate Outlook on Digital Nomadism. Its goal is to validate a solution addressing retention issues faced by companies due to the increasing number of digital nomads. Both primary and secondary data were used to address research questions. The study identified the USA's ICT industry as its primary market and conducted thematic qualitative analysis to uncover strategies and desired outcomes used by ICT companies. The feedback from respondents indicates promising potential for the proposed solution, with 46% of professionals willing to implement it in their organizations.
Ismayilov [200] explores Generation Z, Covid-19, Remote Work, Flexibility, Digital Nomadism, Control and Surveillance, and Corporate Outlook on Digital Nomadism. Its aim is to validate a solution for retaining an increasing number of digital nomads in companies. Utilizing both primary and secondary data, this study enhances our understanding of the corporate relationship and complements the work of teammates Sören Syrbe and Madelyn Thompson. Empirical analysis of secondary data helped identify the primary market, while thematic qualitative analysis of primary data from 13 Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) firms pinpointed strategies and desired outcomes. Findings align with existing literature, indicating the potential relevance of the proposed solution. Feedback from respondents suggests promise, with 46% of professionals willing to implement the Junto solution in their organizations.
The post-COVID-19 age, according to Fikry et al. [201], has seen many significant changes, most notably the rise of remote work arrangements that enable professionals to conduct their business outside from typical office settings. The growth of this tendency is anticipated to continue. The purpose of this work is to synthesise numerous definitions of digital nomads by a thorough assessment and analysis of articles that were published between 2009 and 2023. The study concludes with a comprehensive description of digital nomads that provides information for stakeholders and practitioners.
2.28. Celebrating Diversity
Dhiman et al. [202] highlights that embracing diversity fosters greater productivity, increased creativity, and boosted morale. Diverse perspectives and experiences enrich organizations, enhancing creativity and problem-solving. Managing diversity goes beyond legal compliance, requiring leaders to address their biases. Celebrating diversity reflects a spiritual appreciation of differences, viewing them as expressions of a unifying force. This paper explores the benefits of celebrating diversity, identifies barriers, and provides strategies for promoting inclusivity.
Cultural diversity in the American workforce is a key modern challenge, according to Fine [203]. There are little empirical research studies on diversity inside organisations, despite the fact that extant scholarship offers broad overviews and theoretical viewpoints on diversity. Alternative theoretical frameworks, such as feminist and critical theories, sociological paradigms, and other perspectives on cultural diversity should be investigated in future research. The goal of this research should be to promote multicultural discourses that take into account various points of view while documenting the voices of those who are marginalised in the workforce. Such initiatives can improve not only economic institutions but also political institutions and public dialogue, which will benefit society as a whole.
Allison [204] aimed to investigate diversity issues and programs within park and recreation agencies through the perspectives and experiences of 18 professional women and people of color. Interviews revealed three main themes: a gap between diversity policies and practices, institutional inertia hindering change, and consistent inequitable practices in hiring and promotions based on race and gender. The findings underscore the need for more comprehensive organizational analyses to develop and support meaningful diversity policies and practices in park and recreation agencies and similar human-service organizations.
Language diversity ought to be a strength, according to Agnihotri [205], but in South Asian nations, it frequently results in prejudice and marginalisation. Marginalised communities who speak different regional dialects are oppressed by the use of English and other dominant national or regional languages. This disparity is maintained by education, which privileges dominant languages while undervaluing others. To combat this, using language diversity as a resource in the classroom can undermine power hierarchies, stimulate cognitive development, and increase social tolerance. The voices of linguistic diversity in South Asia must be honoured and valued because they are frequently silenced in society.
Amla [206] aims to showcase the tangible advantages resulting from Accenture's dedication to diversity, both at a global and local level. It delves into worldwide initiatives and leadership practices exemplifying this commitment, offering insights from individuals who have personally experienced the positive effects, thus presenting a comprehensive view of the subject.
According to Ernst and Yip [207], social identity boundaries frequently cross, diverge, and collide in the workplace in today's modern, culturally diverse, and highly networked world. People look to leaders in these situations to help heal these rifts. Employing the four tactics of suspending, reframing, nesting, and weaving, leaders can successfully promote positive connections across these barriers.
Genetic ancestry testing (GAT) is widely used, although Roth et al. [208] highlight concerns about how this may affect racial dynamics in society. This study explores if genetic ancestry testing and learning one has African, Asian, or Native American ancestors boost racial diversity in White Americans' social networks. Surprisingly, the study shows that among test takers, network racial diversity declines. This reduction may be the result of test-takers reevaluating their opinions about the ethnic backgrounds of people in their networks, according to follow-up interviews.
Reitman et al. [209] embarked on a collaborative effort to address racism in geoscience. This interdisciplinary group, representing diverse career levels, developed action plans and initiatives to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion within the USGS. Challenges include navigating the agency's complex structure and ensuring policy transformations persist through political leadership changes. Future efforts will focus on diversifying the workforce, improving community engagement, and fostering diversity within the geoscience field.
Werth et al. [210] introduction underscores the workplace challenges tied to identity and stigma experienced by diverse groups, including individuals with disabilities, youth, aging workers, gender minorities, and migrant workers. Additionally, it explores the impact of collective action and union involvement on the overall workforce experiences of these diverse groups.
Syed and Ozbilgin [211] advocates for a relational framework to enhance the international transfer of diversity management policies and practices. It contends that conventional single-level diversity management models, rooted in legal or organizational policies, inadequately address the multifaceted interplay of structural and agentic factors related to equality. The proposed relational framework offers a more holistic and context-specific approach, bridging macro-national, meso-organizational, and micro-individual levels of analysis, thereby better addressing power disparities and disadvantages in social and employment contexts, and facilitating international transfer efforts.
2.29. Language and Communication
Roberts [212] delves into the evolving workplace dynamics within a globalized economy, emphasizing the transformation of the workforce into a "wordforce" characterized by novel language and communication genres. It scrutinizes the challenges faced by migrants in multilingual workplaces, highlighting the dual socialization process: integration into workplace discourses and adaptation to specific language and cultural practices. The article also addresses language socialization in multilingual settings, where employees encounter diverse linguistic demands, ultimately challenging conventional notions of language socialization in the 21st century.
Moslehifar, M.A. and Ibrahim [213] explores a high value on good English communication skills, especially in fields like human resource development (HRD), where both internal and external communication are critical. Staff members face difficulties with fluency and public speaking, according to research conducted in Malaysia. This study examines the English Language Oral Communication (ELOC) requirements of HRD students at a public institution in Southern Malaysia, identifying the particular oral communication situations and abilities crucial for HRD trainees in professional settings.
Ladegaard and Jenks [214] explores how workplaces in interconnected and multicultural societies shape language and intercultural communication (ICC). It also critiques Eurocentric/Anglocentric frameworks and highlights the need for non-ethnocentric ICC research, encouraging dialogue and collaboration between scholars and practitioners.
Tange and Lauring [215] explores communicative practices resulting from the adoption of English as a corporate language in Danish organizations and their impact on social interaction. Qualitative research interviews reveal a contrast between organizational openness to using English and actual language usage, highlighting language clustering and limited communication as common behaviors in multilingual workplaces. While this study focuses on Danish organizations, its insights into language dynamics and barriers to employee interaction are relevant for language planning and diversity management in various contexts.
Kassim and Ali [216] at an engineering-focused institution in Malaysia's East Coast Region realised the need of matching graduate skill sets to market needs. They polled engineers from ten global chemical companies in Malaysia to gain insight. The findings showed that oral communication skills performed better than written ones in teleconferencing, networking, and concept presentation. For engineers to succeed internationally, fluency in English was regarded essential. The study recommends including realistic working scenarios in module design to better prepare students for their future.
Nissi and Hirsto [217] explores the commodification of language and communication in the realm of organizational consulting within the context of the knowledge and innovation economy. The research draws on data from a year-long consultant-led development and training program for the management teams of a Finnish educational organization, involving 45 hours of videotaped sessions and ethnographic observations. Rhetorical discourse analysis is employed to investigate how the training activities depict the evolving nature of work and the pivotal role of language within it. The findings underscore language and communication as integral components of professional competence and tools for enhancing organizational performance. Additionally, they establish causal links between organizational success and the capacity to assess and adapt one's communicative practices. Unlike previous studies focused on standardization, this training program prioritizes language awareness and contextual adaptation. The paper concludes by considering these training programs as both indicators and facilitators of social change, serving as forums where the evolving landscapes of work are linguistically constructed.
Cheng et al. [218] delves into the English language utilization and communication obstacles faced by newly arrived Canadian immigrants employed in entry-level positions. Through interviews with fourteen participants, the findings reveal distinct categories: topical knowledge, language proficiency, personal attributes, and communication strategies. These patterns of language usage and communication challenges are elucidated within various workplace contexts where these immigrants adapt and excel by using English. This study bridges a research gap concerning entry-level immigrant workers in Canada, offering nuanced insights through their work and life narratives concerning their English language proficiency.
2.30. Global Perspectives on Mobility
Andrade [219] explores the importance of gender diversity in workplaces, considering the persistent gender gap in compensation and promotions. It examines existing literature to highlight the benefits of gender diversity and common strategies employed by organizations to promote gender equality. Additionally, the paper offers insights drawn from two global research studies on gender equality, providing practical implications and applications based on these findings.
Lieven [220] examines policy measures to promote electric vehicle (EV) adoption, focusing on incentives to influence consumers' voluntary behavior. Through choice-based conjoint analysis and the Kano method, individual consumer preferences and satisfaction are assessed. The findings emphasize the necessity of installing freeway charging networks, independent of daily mileage. While high cash grants are attractive, combining lower grants with charging facilities yields similar preference shares in various countries, offering guidance for policymakers and practitioners seeking to enhance EV incentive programs.
Podsiadlowski and Ward [221] examines workplace bias, particularly its impact on immigrants and new settlers in the labor market. It discusses the evidence of inequality, explores how bias operates in recruitment, selection, and performance evaluation, and delves into the psychological and sociological processes underpinning bias. The chapter concludes with practical recommendations for addressing bias in the workplace, involving organizations and managers as agents of change.
Carvalho et al. [222] highlights how ICTs, such as mobile devices and software applications, enable and empower individuals engaged in nomadic work practices, which are increasingly common in the knowledge economy. The chapter serves as a foundation for future research on technologically-mediated nomadic work.
Pittinsky and Shih [223] propose a new perspective on the relationship between organizational commitment and worker mobility, challenging the traditional view that increased mobility leads to reduced commitment. They introduce the concept of "Knowledge Nomads," suggesting that mobile workers can develop meaningful commitments to organizations, countering the idea that they are simply transient wanderers. This perspective is based on both theoretical review and empirical data, offering insights for theory, practice, and future research.
Breure and Meel [224] explores the needs and activities of business travelers during their time at airports. It investigates whether business travelers require dedicated workplaces with various amenities such as printers, internet access, showers, and dining options or if simpler facilities like seating with network connections suffice. The study relies on surveys and in-depth interviews with Dutch business travelers to address these questions.
Ryberg et al. [225] examines the practices of nomadic collaborative learning groups, focusing on two undergraduate student groups engaged in self-organized, long-term collaborations within Problem and Project-Based Learning. Through interviews, workshops, and observations, the study identifies three categories of nomadic collaborative learning practices: orchestration of work phases, spaces, and activities; orchestration of multiple technologies; and orchestration of togetherness. The research emphasizes the fluid, situated, and improvisational nature of how these student groups navigate their collaborative work, combining digital and physical elements. These categories contribute to a deeper understanding of nomadic collaborative learning groups.
Rossitto et al. [226] investigates how people use and make sense of various technologies in nomadic settings, highlighting the importance of orchestrating multiple devices and applications in such contexts. The research, conducted over three years at a technical university through field studies, emphasizes how students manage projects across multiple locations and addresses issues of time and resource circulation. It also explores how constellations of technologies arise and fade within temporary collaborative groups, leading to potential appropriation challenges within these groups.
Humphry [227] explores how mobile knowledge professionals use digital technologies in their work, emphasizing the activities of articulation, negotiation, and repair that mediate social relations beyond their role as support for mobile work. It introduces the concept of "officing" with three categories: connecting, configuring, and synchronizing, illustrating how these activities shape and are shaped by workers' relationships with time and their professional identities. Research conducted at a municipal council in Sydney and a global telecommunications firm in Melbourne informs this argument. Officing is found to influence the perception of time pressure, work-life boundaries, and professional identity.
Czarniawska [228] examines the narratives of "digital immigrants" and "digital natives" concerning their working-life stories, revealing that these stories are constructed using existing narrative templates. Surprisingly, "nomadic plots" can be borrowed from opposing political narratives and may lose their effectiveness in changing circumstances, like the financial crisis. Family circumstances, childhood political situations, and gender-mitigated family situations influence the choice of a nomadic life plot. Despite this, younger generations still find nomadic work an attractive narrative, indicating the complexity of the "digital immigrants" and "nomadic work" concepts.
Hardless [229] focuses on training, education, and knowledge sharing among mobile individuals, often referred to as nomads. The project aims to provide competence development opportunities for these mobile workers using 3rd generation cellular networks (3G) that offer high-speed mobile access and multimedia capabilities. The study explores the competence development needs and potential activities for mobile workers in this context.
2.31. Travel and Location Independence
Wickham and Vecchi [230] investigates the external connections of clusters through the lens of business air travel, categorizing travelers into various types. The research reveals that clusters have more intricate external linkages than typically acknowledged. This necessitates significant mobility among individuals to maintain these connections. The study highlights the implications of such extensive travel for workplace dynamics, work-life balance, and citizenship. It cautions against oversimplified interpretations of these relationships.
Yamakami [231] suggested a collaborative framework that harnesses the untapped potential of senior citizens to drive innovation. This approach aims to leverage the intellectual capabilities of older individuals, similar to how innovation transformed human resources during the Industrial Revolution and globalization.
Kramers et al. [232] explores the potential of flexible workplaces in urban areas as a means to reduce congestion and energy consumption in transportation. It investigates the business aspects of such workplaces and interviews existing hub owners to understand the driving forces and barriers to their establishment. The study also emphasizes the role of ICT solutions in enhancing the accessibility and energy-saving potential of flexible workplaces.
Lee and McNally [233] focuses on understanding the process of activity scheduling and its impact on travel behavior. A computerized survey instrument was developed to collect data on household activity scheduling, tracking the evolution of schedules from intentions to outcomes over a week. The study analyzes the structure of activity and travel patterns, revealing that shorter activities were often inserted opportunistically into schedules already anchored by longer activities. Additionally, travel patterns showed that many trip-chains were formed opportunistically, and travel times correlated with the scheduling horizon of activities.
Stiles and Smart [234] investigates the relationship between work locations and travel behavior in the United States from 2003 to 2017 using data from the American Time Use Survey. The study finds that working from home reduces daily travel duration and increases the likelihood of avoiding peak-hour travel for both work and non-work-related trips. However, working from other locations, such as cafes or vehicles, also increases the likelihood of not traveling during peak hours, particularly in the morning. The research suggests that policies promoting spatial and temporal flexibility for employees can be effective in managing travel demand and reducing congestion.
Bhat [235] presents a joint model that combines work travel mode choice and the number of stops during the work commute. It improves the evaluation of policies to reduce peak-period congestion and enhances the understanding of how individuals make simultaneous choices about commuting mode and the number of stops. The model is applied to Boston Metropolitan area data and assesses the impact of congestion-alleviation measures.
2.32. Co-Working Spaces
Capdevila [236] employs a multi-level perspective to examine the role of individuals and communities in driving innovation within localized contexts. Focusing on co-working spaces (CWSs) in Barcelona, the study investigates the innovation dynamics involving community members and local stakeholders such as businesses, citizens, and government entities. The findings highlight how CWSs serve as intermediaries, facilitating interaction between creative individuals (the "underground") and innovative firms (the "upper-ground") by organizing spaces, projects, and events. The paper offers policy recommendations to promote innovation beyond traditional corporate settings.
Houghton et al. [237] discusses the evaluation of a Queensland State Government-led trial of co-working spaces, known as Flexible Work Centres (FWCs). The trial involved 47 participants from 10 government departments and aimed to assess the impact of FWCs on employee productivity, retention, and work-life balance. The findings highlighted the benefits of flexible work arrangements, particularly the provision of alternative work venues, and emphasized the importance of trust in employees. The positive results led to the continued provision and potential expansion of the program.
Fiorentino [238] explores the role of co-working spaces (CWS) in the local economy of Rome and provides a taxonomy of three CWS typologies: social incubators, start-up incubators, and real estate incubators. It discusses the locational patterns of these spaces in urban peripheral areas and suggests policy recommendations for integrating CWS into the local amenity offering through public-private partnerships or social leases, addressing urban regeneration and governance tools.
Avdikos and Kalogeresis [239] examines third places such as co-working spaces and work collectives in the creative economy, focusing on the working conditions and socio-economic profiles of Greek freelance designers who use these spaces to mitigate precarious work situations. It reveals that while these spaces foster networking and collaboration, they can also perpetuate poor pay and inadequate social security, creating enclaves of the shadow economy within the creative sector.
Ondia [240] investigates the connection between the spatial layout of co-working spaces and users' behavior. It employs ethnographic methods, visual documentation, direct observations, and behavioral mapping in two case studies. The findings reveal that design elements like barriers and fields have a significant impact on guiding and influencing user behavior in co-working spaces. These insights can be valuable for architects, policymakers, and facility managers when designing co-working spaces.
Vaddadi et al. [241] investigates the environmental impact of co-working spaces, focusing on their potential to reduce commuting-related energy use while considering the energy consumption associated with operating such spaces. A framework is developed to assess both direct and indirect environmental effects. The study, based on a co-working living lab in Stockholm, finds that the energy requirements of co-working spaces can offset commute-related energy savings, highlighting the need for additional energy-saving measures.
Coll-Martínez and Méndez-Ortega [242] examines the location patterns of co-working spaces (CWS) in Barcelona and their relationship with the creative industries (CIs). Using GIS and statistical methods, the study finds that CWS are concentrated in central areas of Barcelona, coagglomerate with CIs, and benefit from proximity to urban amenities and specific place-images. These findings have implications for urban policies in the city.
Berbegal-Mirabent [243] conducts a comprehensive review of the existing literature on co-working spaces (CWSs) using bibliometric analysis and science mapping techniques. It identifies four key areas for future research in CWSs: geographical location, physical space, business models, and inclusive communities. These areas may provide valuable insights for understanding CWSs in a post-pandemic society.
Mariotti et al. [244] investigates the location patterns and urban effects of co-working spaces in Milan, Italy. It explores where these spaces are situated, their impact on urban revitalization, and how they influence practices such as work, leisure, and culture. The study contributes to understanding the spatial and innovative aspects of co-working in urban spaces.
Lapsomboonkamol [245] investigates the motivational factors that influence knowledge-sharing behaviors in co-working spaces in Thailand. In-depth interviews with personnel management at nine co-working spaces reveal intrinsic motivations like interests and altruism, as well as extrinsic motivations such as career opportunities and networking. The findings offer insights for future research and the development of knowledge-sharing systems in co-working spaces.
2.33. Remote Collaboration Tools
Sutherland and Jarrahi [246] explores the gig economy in the context of digital nomads, who use various decentralized digital platforms for remote work. It utilizes the concept of information infrastructure to analyze how digital nomads create and manage a diverse set of digital tools and platforms to support their work practices. The research combines forum analysis and interviews to investigate this phenomenon.
Meyer [247] introduces a framework for facilitating a nomadic workforce, emphasizing the growing significance of workforce mobility. To enable such mobility, the framework focuses on infrastructure for specifying and delegating workflows, combining physical mobility with software agent mobility. It underscores the need for a nomadic computing platform that can facilitate distributed asynchronous communication, even in situations with intermittent or short-lived connections.
Nichols [248] focuses on quantifying the digital nomad population, individuals who live a location-independent lifestyle while working remotely. It emphasizes the importance of HR departments creating digital nomad policies as part of their remote work strategies to attract talent, ensure compliance, and mitigate legal risks. The study relies on data from the 2021 MBO Partners State of Independence in America study, involving a survey of 6,240 U.S. residents aged 18 and older, with results weighted to represent national demographics.
Chevtaeva [249] investigates the experiences of digital nomads in combined coworking and coliving spaces in attractive destinations. By analyzing qualitative interview data, it aims to identify valuable aspects of these spaces. Understanding digital nomad preferences can assist destinations and businesses in attracting this group, especially in the context of the pandemic. The study's findings, including perceived advantages and disadvantages of coworking and coliving spaces, can guide strategies for targeting digital nomads.
Rasmussen et al. [250] designed to enhance workspace awareness during remote assistance with physical tasks. It offers various Augmented Reality cues and sound cues to communicate the remote helper's viewpoint and focus to the local worker. A lab study demonstrated that these cues effectively supported the worker's awareness of the helper's location and focus, with the Color Cue showing superiority in task performance and preference ratings during a search task.
Liegl [251] explores how freelancers navigate the challenges of finding suitable work environments that foster creativity and productivity. Drawing from ethnographic studies in different cities, it highlights the role of mobility as both a problem and a resource in their quest for the right workspace. The study also emphasizes the impact of mobile and collaborative technologies on balancing solitude and sociality, terming this interplay the "care of place" with aesthetic, affective, social, and socio-political dimensions.
2.34. Professional Activities
Zeinstra [252] explored the measures taken by digital nomads to maintain their self-perceived professional image. Interviews with at least six digital nomads revealed the importance of reliable internet access, finding suitable work environments, and adjusting to new routines as common challenges. Professionalism was associated with delivering quality work, effective communication, a well-rounded skill set, appearance, professional background, and trust. Interestingly, interviewees valued transparency about their nomadic lifestyle with clients or employers as it was seen as vital for building and maintaining trust and, consequently, a professional image.
Toivanen [253] investigated the growing commodification of the digital nomad lifestyle, highlighting the rise of digital nomad infrastructure (DNI) tailored to this consumer segment. Ethnographic fieldwork and online data reveal that DNI shapes nomads' mobility patterns, facilitates their transition into digital nomadism, and provides a social infrastructure. This commodification challenges the perception of digital nomadism as a counter-cultural lifestyle.
Hannonen [254] focused on the impact of digital nomadism from a geographic perspective, exploring how digital nomads interact with, inhabit, and affect places and environments through their travel. It aims to understand their mobility patterns, their impact at personal, local, and global levels, and how geographic perspectives can enhance our understanding of them as tourists and travelers.
Ahlberg [255] aims to apply uses and gratification theory and Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs to understand the motivations and needs of digital nomads, particularly in the context of the pandemic. It seeks to explore how the digital nomad phenomenon may have evolved and whether there is a greater interest in remote work as a result of recent changes in work models.
Gurvičius [256] investigates digital nomadism, particularly in Medellin, exploring concepts like coworking and co-living. It focuses on digital nomad sociodemographics, mobility patterns, infrastructure usage, and their connections with the local society. The study reveals that digital nomads actively engage in local activities and identifies hubs of connectedness that facilitate interaction with locals in Medellin's evolving knowledge economy.
Garcez et al. [257] investigates the suitability of Trás-os-Montes Lands in Portugal as a destination for digital nomads. While the region possesses potential, it requires an action plan to cater to the specific needs of this segment effectively, considering factors such as tourist accommodation and regional characteristics to enhance its attractiveness to digital nomads.
Thompson [258] examines the future of remote work and its impact on company cultures. It introduces Junto, a B2B remote work program designed to facilitate a "workation" experience for employees, enhancing work-life balance while assisting with travel logistics. The research combines qualitative and quantitative approaches to provide insights into how non-start-up companies can transition to remote work and highlights Junto's potential as a valuable service for such firms.
2.35. Institutionalization and Commercialization
Servaty et al. [259] explores coworking spaces in the context of health sciences. Qualitative interviews with coworkers and operators in three German cities reveal that the community aspect and the alternative to home office are key reasons for using coworking spaces. Negative job demands include ergonomic issues and disruptions, while time flexibility and social surroundings are viewed as job resources, providing insights for future quantitative research and health management concepts.
Venkatachalam and Mishra [260] employs a multi-level perspective (MLP) to analyze the evolving workplace landscape in the post-COVID-19 era. It utilizes discourse analysis on social media platforms to capture various stakeholders' viewpoints regarding (a) shifting workplace dimensions, (b) emerging challenges, (c) the need for new technologies, and (d) pandemic-related workplace insights. The goal is to propose a conceptual model informed by socio-technical theories for guiding workplace policy design.
Kuhn [261] explores the dynamics of workplace time commitments in late modernity by examining identity work and identity regulation. It argues that these processes are shaped by discursive resources from both organizational and social contexts, which can either emphasize individual agency or structural influences in the individual-organization relationship. This perspective suggests that studies of workplace control and resistance should consider the specific discursive resources at play, offering insights into the institutionalization of workplace practices and challenging notions of totalizing modernity effects on identity.
Dobrinskaya [262] explores the consequences of technological changes stemming from the Third Industrial Revolution and their role in ushering in the Fourth Industrial Revolution. It draws intriguing parallels between contemporary networked societies and traditional nomadic lifestyles, emphasizing the significance of digital nomads who rely on mobile devices and continuous internet access. The paper delves into the multifaceted concept of networks, highlighting its importance in modern society and its diverse interpretations within network society research.
Zerva et al. [263] explores the dynamics of workplace time commitments in late modernity by examining identity work and identity regulation. It argues that these processes are shaped by discursive resources from both organizational and social contexts, which can either emphasize individual agency or structural influences in the individual-organization relationship. This perspective suggests that studies of workplace control and resistance should consider the specific discursive resources at play, offering insights into the institutionalization of workplace practices and challenging notions of totalizing modernity effects on identity.
The International Hellenic University's MSc programme in Strategic Product Design's Hill [264] dissertation examines digital nomadism and internet nations. Twenty digital nomads participated in user research interviews as part of the project, which will help Plumia's efforts to establish an online nation for this group of people. The project emphasises how contemporary academic and professional endeavours are borderless and collaborative.
Garcez et al. [265] delves into the concept of digital nomadism, tracing its origins, identifying key characteristics of digital nomads, and understanding their destination preferences. By shedding light on these aspects, the study offers valuable insights for destination management organizations to tailor their offerings and attract this growing tourist segment.
Olga [266] defines digital nomadism as a mobile lifestyle where individuals work while traveling and travel while working. It explores the societal factors driving this phenomenon, highlighting the lack of a common understanding and comprehensive perspective in the emerging literature. The paper aims to provide a conceptual framework for digital nomadism within the context of lifestyle mobilities, laying the groundwork for further research in this area.
Li et al. [267] addresses the emerging topic of digital nomads in the context of China, where this phenomenon is gaining traction. It defines digital nomadism, outlines its characteristics and supporting systems, traces its origin and evolution, and assesses the current state of research in this area. The paper serves as a foundational guide for future research on digital nomads, particularly in the Chinese context.
Getman [268] focuses on developing digital nomad tourism in destinations that haven't traditionally attracted this type of traveler. Using the case study of Madeira islands, it offers insights into building a strategy for other destinations. Key aspects include understanding the audience, creating communities, collaborating with experienced digital nomads, and ensuring sustainability in planning.
2.36. Impact of COVID-19
Pignatari [269] explores the tax challenges posed by digital nomads, considering factors influencing their choice, the impact on tax residence determination, and taxation of their income. It highlights the need to adapt tax residence rules and income taxation regulations to accommodate the unique circumstances of digital nomads, emphasizing the importance of updating domestic laws and double tax treaties.
Svobodová [270] investigates and compares the digital nomad policies implemented by 23 different countries to attract remote workers. The research highlights significant variations in the visa requirements and shows the growing trend of countries offering specialized visas for digital nomads. Additionally, it proposes a framework for future research on the relationship between digital nomadism and the challenges faced by the international tourism and hospitality industry in host countries.
Stumpf et al. [271] employs grounded theory to investigate the process of becoming a digital nomad entrepreneur (DNE), merging lifestyle and business factors. It identifies the "Digital Nomad Entrepreneurship & Lifestyle Design Process" with four sub-categories, providing a practical guide for aligning income generation with a geographically flexible lifestyle, which is increasingly relevant in the context of remote work, amplified by the COVID-19 pandemic.
Betre [272] explores the interaction between digital nomadism and sustainable tourism, examining how digital nomads challenge traditional host-guest norms and integrate with sustainable accommodations. Findings suggest that digital nomads engage with sustainable tourism establishments but are also categorized as various types of travelers. Collaboration and knowledge sharing can enhance their participation, and governments should reassess tourist definitions to include long-term travelers like digital nomads. Further research is needed to understand their economic impact, cultural motivations, and support for sustainability projects.
2.37. Digital Business Structure Workplace
Strutynska et al. [273] delves into the impact of digital technology on organizational business models, emphasizing the need for continuous innovation and effective IT integration in the modern information-driven economy. It conducts a thorough analysis of digital transformation roadmaps, explores business process management software, and highlights how digital technologies influence the shift from traditional linear models to digital business models, ultimately benefiting enterprises by enhancing responsiveness and adaptability to market dynamics.
Nwaiwu [274] employs an academic approach to evaluate various conceptual and theoretical frameworks pertaining to digital business transformation. It conducts a comparative analysis to assess their suitability and robustness in addressing this evolving subject. The study reveals a disconnect between industry-based and academic research in the field, highlighting the need for more alignment in understanding the transformative impact of digital technologies on businesses and organizational structures.
Al-Debi et al. [275] addresses the ambiguity surrounding the concept of a Business Model (BM) in Information Systems (IS). It classifies existing definitions in the IS literature, offers guidelines for a comprehensive definition, and identifies key BM concepts and values in the context of digital business. It then proposes a new, more suitable definition for the modern digital business landscape.
Bharadwaj et al. [276] advocates for a shift from traditional IT strategy, seen as subordinate to business strategy, to a concept termed "digital business strategy." It outlines four key themes: scope, scale, speed, and sources of value in digital business strategy. The paper discusses success metrics and performance implications, offering direction for future research in the field.
Selimović et al. [277] explores the impact of employee involvement, well-being, and support for digital work on the transformation of the workplace. It aims to determine whether these factors influence employees' performance, well-being, and intentions to support digital workplace transformation, bridging a gap in existing literature. The study also considers potential variations in these factors due to the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Loeschner [278] explores the concept of peripheral work connectivity (PWC) in the context of a multinational organization, TechComp. It investigates the extent of PWC, its role in changing norms of availability, and its impact on power negotiations. The study combines a large survey, ethnographic work, and in-depth interviews to shed light on how PWC influences work-life boundaries and power dynamics within the organization.
Haddud and McAllen [279] discusses the development and management of digital workplaces in organizations. It covers the essential components, potential advantages, and challenges of digital workplaces, emphasizing the importance of leadership skills. It also assesses key success factors for effective digital workplace management, providing insights for organizations transitioning to digital work environments.
Schwade [280] introduces the Social Collaboration Analytics Framework, which helps organizations analyze collaboration activities within Enterprise Collaboration Systems (ECS). It offers a structured approach, including phases, steps, recommendations, and guiding questions for extracting insights from ECS data. The framework aims to enhance decision-making in ECS projects and improve business intelligence related to digital workplace collaboration.
Mićić and Mastilo [281] conducts a systematic literature review to explore the impact of COVID-19 on digital transformation in businesses. It covers various aspects, including changes in the workplace, the adoption of digital technologies, and the shift to hybrid work models. The review also delves into the benefits, challenges, and critical success factors associated with digital workplace transformation in the post-pandemic era.
Hult and Byström [282] discusses the impact of digitalization on workplaces, focusing on changes in how employees interact and learn. The study highlights the complexity of digital workplace development, emphasizing the need to consider not only technology but also the development of competencies and leadership practices. The paper argues that understanding work, rather than just information systems, should be central to the digitalization of work.
Weritz [283] examines the essential skills needed for the digital workplace by conducting a cross-case analysis of nine multinational corporations. The research identifies key skills, including an entrepreneurial mindset, digital responsible thinking, digital literacy, transformative skills, personal development skills, communication skills, community management skills, data analytic skills, and web development skills. The findings provide valuable insights for businesses and leaders looking to upskill their workforce and recruit future employees for the digital workplace.
Williams and Schubert [284] presents the results of a study that analyzed 13 Enterprise Collaboration Systems (ECS) in organizations to identify distinctive digital workplace designs. The research identified six distinct designs, including three people-focused designs that support various levels of interaction among employees and three process-focused designs that facilitate collaborative work on business improvement projects and integration with enterprise processes and systems. These findings illustrate how organizations interpret and shape the digital workplace to meet their specific needs.
Attaran et al. [285] discusses the evolving nature of workplaces, driven by advances in communication and technology, as well as changing employee expectations. It emphasizes the significance of smart workplace technologies, outlines factors contributing to successful implementation, and explores the potential advantages. Additionally, the article reviews a case study of successful smart workplace technology implementation in a small service industry.
Pagani [286] explores the dynamic nature of value networks within digital business environments, focusing on control points where enterprises exert significant influence. Drawing from a field study in the European and U.S. broadcasting industry, it examines how incremental innovations can transform networks from static to loosely coupled, and how cross-boundary disruptions can lead to the emergence of two-sided markets. The study offers insights and implications for digital business strategy research and practice.
2.38. Adapting to the Digital Nomad Lifestyle: Evolution of Work-from-Home Productivity
Narotzki and Kuperberg [287] analyze the tax implications of nonresident alien digital nomads in the U.S. and advocate for their exemption from federal income tax. They argue that this unique workforce should not be obligated to pay U.S. federal income tax due to their transient and global work nature.
Ouro [288] explores the taxation implications on digital nomads' mobility, considering Corporate Income Taxation (CIT) and Personal Income Taxation (PIT) under Portuguese domestic law and OECD Model Convention (OECDMC). It also delves into tax competition, cooperation between states, and the challenges digital nomads face regarding tax obligations. The paper underscores the complexity of tax-related issues digital nomads encounter as they navigate their mobile work lifestyles.
Casi et al. [289] explores the tax implications of programs provided by tax havens, such as citizenship and residence-by-investment (CBI/RBI) and digital nomad visa (DNV) programs. It discusses how these initiatives enable individuals to avoid or evade taxes and provides an overview of the features of existing DNV programs, which are offered by more than 40 countries, including many tax havens, potentially leading to tax avoidance and evasion.
Octavia [290] examines the importance of implementing a Digital Nomad visa in Bali to address immigration violations and revive the Balinese economy, which suffered during the pandemic. The research emphasizes the potential economic benefits of attracting Digital Nomads to Bali and suggests that the visa's success hinges on regulating digital work patterns and administrative factors, such as security deposits, to ensure benefits for the Indonesian people.
Krakat [291] discusses the globalization of citizenship and residence sales, highlighting how millions of migrants seek global mobility due to factors like globalization, climate change, and pandemics. It notes the absence of a specific country for migrants and mentions lifestyle migrations where individuals become "citizens of everywhere and nowhere," sometimes leading to a minimalist lifestyle.
Poulaki [292] explores Greece's potential as a destination for digital nomads, assessing its strengths and opportunities while also highlighting challenges. It analyzes the country's online presence through the "Work From Greece" website dedicated to digital nomads and examines the availability of co-working spaces. The study employs SWOT analysis and content analysis to provide insights for further research and tourism policy recommendations.
Nanopoulos [293] discusses the rise of digital nomads in Greece, driven in part by the COVID-19 pandemic and the country's improved technological infrastructure. It highlights the introduction of Law 4825/2021, which allows third country workers to work remotely from Greece, and outlines the criteria for the digital nomad visa. The article also mentions significant technological investments in the country.
Åkerlund [294] explores how lifestyle-led mobilities, characterized by individuals dividing their time seasonally between different locations, are shaped by globalization and the pursuit of experiences, variation, and comfort. It investigates how these movers navigate structural frameworks, interpret them, and negotiate their identities, places, and lifestyles through their mobility practices and connections in various locations, focusing on Swedes moving between Sweden and Malta.
Bergan and Dufty-Jones [295] examines how co-living housing businesses have successfully reduced domestic living spaces by adopting a "Housing-as-a-Service" (HaaS) business model. It argues that this approach helps them navigate complex regulatory environments in housing markets. Using New York City's co-living sector as an example, the chapter shows how co-living operators adapted to changing regulations during the COVID-19 pandemic, highlighting the resilience of this housing model in the face of regulatory challenges.
Maalsen [296] explores the concept of "smart housing" within the context of smart cities and innovative, entrepreneurial approaches to housing markets. It examines the intersections between changing housing markets, sharing economies, and the broader concept of smart cities. The paper sheds light on the political and market responses that arise from these intersections, shaping the concept of smart housing.
Bergan et al. [297] explores the historical connections between early 19th-century gentlemen's clubs, mid-19th-century residential hotels, and contemporary co-living as shared housing infrastructures. It examines how these housing types have influenced mobility, work, and sociality and identifies common strategies such as shrinking private spaces, maximizing productive spaces, and integrating services that underpin their infrastructural work. This historical perspective highlights the importance of considering the long-term evolution of housing practices.
Liaros [298] proposes a systems-based approach to create smart rural villages known as circular economy villages (CEVs). It draws on historical town planning concepts and design principles from the 20th century and updates them for the 21st century. The goal is to encourage research institutes, local councils, and developers to collaborate on prototyping this CEV development model.
Uyttebrouck [299] explores the intertwining of living and working in housing and urban development, focusing on three cities (Amsterdam, Brussels, and Stockholm) and various types of live-work arrangements. It investigates how different institutional frameworks and governance arrangements influence the nature of live-work mix in these cities, highlighting the importance of local government intervention and collaboration among actors. The research underscores the significance of regulatory and governance considerations in addressing live-work challenges and opportunities.
Orlikowski [300] have received an invitation to engage in a comprehensive discussion on the subject of "digital work" while laying the groundwork for a research agenda that will shape the next decade. Their approach involves a multi-faceted strategy, commencing with a redefinition of the digital work concept. They plan to bolster their discussions with practical, real-world illustrations and culminate by outlining promising research directions. This endeavor aims to make a substantial and meaningful contribution to the evolving field of digital work and its academic exploration in the coming years.
Singh and Glowacki [301] challenge the common belief that prehistoric humans lived in small, mobile, and egalitarian groups. They propose an alternative model, the "diverse histories model," which suggests that non-agricultural societies in various regions were often more sedentary, unequal, and politically stratified than previously assumed. This view is supported by ethnographic and archaeological evidence from different parts of the world and has implications for our understanding of human history and psychology.
Urquhart [302] delves into agency theory within the context of the Alternative Investments Market (AIM), examining aspects like managerial discretion, corporate governance compliance, voluntary disclosure policies, and regulation. It also explores the role of Nomads, firms responsible for ensuring AIM compliance. Research findings highlight the market's response to changes in Nomads and their influence on governance standards and voluntary disclosure levels within AIM-listed companies.
Vlcek and Vlcek [303] examines the European Union's attempts to address tax nomads. They discuss the European Savings Tax Directive (EUSTD) as a means of combating tax evasion, but with limited success. The chapter also reviews the EU's efforts to establish a common strategy for corporate income tax among member states and explores the European Commission's approach to investigating tax rulings by member states as potentially illegal state aid to multinational corporations.
Vlcek and Vlcek [304] explores the concept of global governance in relation to tax nomads. It highlights the emergence of tax nomads as a global issue following the financial crisis and the OECD's role in developing solutions. The chapter underscores the influence of the United States' actions against individual tax nomads in shaping OECD initiatives, while also addressing concerns that OECD measures may disproportionately impact US digital economy corporations.
Vlcek and Vlcek [305] begins by emphasizing the significance of state sovereignty in shaping tax policies. The concept of a tax nomad is introduced, distinguishing between individual and corporate nomads. The chapter also delves into Michel Foucault's concept of governmentality, emphasizing its relevance in understanding power dynamics between the state and nomads.
Kleinrock [306] explores the concept of nomadic computing and communications, which involves providing seamless and convenient support for users as they move between different locations with various mobile devices. It discusses the challenges and open issues related to enabling nomadicity and highlights the importance of wireless communications in this context.
Han et al. [307] introduces a Blockchain-based framework to address limitations in existing crowdsourcing platforms, specifically focusing on non-transparent incentive mechanisms and isolated worker profiles. The framework leverages Blockchain's transparent data model and smart contract capabilities to provide transparent incentives and enable trusted worker profile sharing across platforms, enhancing the overall crowdsourcing experience.
Chatti [308] presents the Personal Knowledge Network (PKN) model as an alternative to traditional Knowledge Management (KM) and Personal Knowledge Management (PKM) models. It critiques existing models for their inability to address knowledge worker performance and adapt to the dynamic nature of modern knowledge environments. The PKN model is introduced as a potential solution to these challenges.
Gioia et al. [309] propose a systematic approach for developing new concepts and articulating grounded theory in qualitative research. This approach aims to enhance the scholarly rigor of qualitative studies, addressing concerns that such research may sometimes lack rigor in its methods and presentation of findings.
Ens et al. [310] introduces a theoretical framework categorizing digital workers into four types: Gig Worker, Digital Nomad, Nine to Fiver, and Travelling Elite. It explores the impact of digital technology on their work-life and aims to develop a research design using diaries to empirically study the role of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in promoting decent work for these different types of digital workers.
Kinder et al. [311] explores how freelancers and clients on Upwork utilize external digital platforms to regain agency within the gig economy, countering the information and power asymmetries created by algorithm-based management. Actor-network theory is employed to analyze Upwork's strategy, the alliances formed by users to circumvent platform control, and the broader ecosystem of external digital platforms supporting online freelancing. This research sheds light on the complexities and tensions within gig work and the various actors involved in shaping the gig economy.
Kudyba [312] examines how the COVID-19 pandemic prompted organizations to embrace technology-driven operational changes. It draws on prior research and insights from diverse industries to highlight technology-related challenges and the evolution of the future of work within these organizations as they respond to the disruptive impacts of the pandemic.
Gast et al. [313] explores the "small firm effect," which suggests that small firms generate more entrepreneurs than larger ones. It analyzes the influence of different management positions on employee entrepreneurship in small firms and finds that lower-level management positions within small firms play a significant role in fostering entrepreneurship. These positions enable employees to benefit from knowledge spillovers and networking opportunities, contributing to the small firm effect.
Setlak [314] aimed to understand the factors influencing the feasibility of adopting a digital nomadic lifestyle. It involved a literature review to grasp the current landscape of digital nomadism and interviews with ten digital nomads following IRB standards. The study focused on three key variables: planning and preparation, monetization, and costs. The findings revealed twelve potential barriers to entry for individuals considering a digital nomadic lifestyle.
Beatty and Torbert [315] challenge the conventional view of work and leisure as opposing concepts and argue that they are complementary. They suggest that leisure, characterized by voluntary, intentional, and awareness-expanding activities, can facilitate personal growth and transformation. They advocate for giving leisure the same attention and respect as work, emphasizing its importance for personal and organizational development.
Demaj et al. [316] explores the phenomenon of digital nomadism, where individuals work online while traveling, blurring the lines between work and leisure. The study aims to identify the factors influencing digital nomads' destination choices and assess what advantages Tirana, Albania, offers to this group. Qualitative interviews with digital nomads were conducted to provide insights and recommendations for cities in developing countries looking to attract digital nomads and stimulate local economies.
Dery et al. [317] presents a case study of smartphone users in a global financial services firm to understand the evolving practices and impacts of mobile communication technology on work and non-work life. The study reveals that users have adapted to manage connectivity across these domains, choosing when and how to engage with work-related communication, blurring the boundaries between work and personal life.
Engebrigtsen [318] explores the concept of nomadism and its relationship with nomadic people within a European context. It discusses how the figure of the nomad has been perceived in European folk culture and in academic discourse, drawing from various sources like Pierre Clastres, Deleuze and Guattari, and Rosi Braidotti. The article suggests that understanding the contrast between nomadism and the state can have valuable epistemological implications for ethnographic work among mobile populations.
Etzioni [319] delves into the concept of reevaluating the fundamental goal of capitalist economies, which involves questioning the relentless pursuit of heightened consumption. This notion has undergone a series of cycles, characterized by periods of rejection, acceptance, and subsequent reevaluation. The historical roots of this concept trace back to the early stages of industrialization, marked by periodic shifts in perspective concerning the virtues of prioritizing high consumption levels as opposed to other life objectives.
Felstead and Henseke [320] challenges the notion that remote work benefits both employers and employees. It argues that only a portion of the increase in remote work can be explained by factors like shifts to the knowledge economy and flexible employment. While remote work is linked to positive outcomes like organizational commitment and job satisfaction, it also leads to work intensification and difficulties in disengaging from work.
White et al. [321] examines the impact of high-performance work practices and working hours on work-life balance using data from British employee surveys conducted in 1992 and 2000. The findings reveal that long working hours consistently contribute to negative work-to-home spillover. Surprisingly, certain high-performance practices have become more strongly associated with this negative spillover over time. Contrary to expectations, dual-earner couples do not experience higher levels of spillover, and the presence of young children has become less influential. This suggests a conflict between high-performance practices and work-life balance policies.
Bekkers et al. [322] explores the adoption of social media monitoring practices in Dutch public organizations. The primary objectives of social media monitoring include strategic control and responsiveness. However, the implementation of such monitoring raises ethical questions related to transparency, accountability, and privacy. The study examines monitoring practices in four Dutch public organizations, noting that policy departments tend to focus more on monitoring, while those involved in policy implementation are more inclined to engage in webcare activities. The paper advocates for increased transparency regarding social media monitoring practices.
Angiello [323] discusses the policies and initiatives implemented in two European cities, Venice (Italy) and Madeira (Portugal), to attract and retain digital nomads and remote workers. It evaluates the effectiveness of these initiatives and the advantages of designing programs and facilities tailored to the needs of digital nomads.
Tuomela [324] focuses on understanding the habits, preferences, and behaviors of digital nomads who travel in Europe. Digital nomads are individuals who use technology to work remotely and achieve location independence. The study conducted a quantitative online survey, gathering data on digital nomad demographics, accommodation, spending habits, and sustainability considerations. The findings highlight the importance of businesses providing flexible policies and proximity to local amenities to attract and cater to digital nomads effectively.
Teodorovicz et al. [325] examines how localities can compete for remote workers by leveraging location-specific attributes that create value for both the individual and the community. The research focuses on Tulsa Remote, a program in Tulsa, Oklahoma, that increased community engagement, income, and entrepreneurship among remote workers, benefiting both the workers and the community. The findings highlight the importance of location-specific factors in creating and capturing value from remote workers.
Vogl and Micek [326] explores the relationship between tourism and the emergence of coworking spaces (CSs) in remote areas of Germany. It found that the impact of the accommodation industry on CSs was moderate. Using design thinking and the breakthrough model, it suggests that businesses and policymakers should adapt strategies to tap into the market potential created by CSs in attractive remote locations.
Kostikidis [327] suggests revisions to the OECD model tax treaty to establish tax treaty residence for mobile individuals, such as digital nomads. These proposed updates aim to streamline the process and reduce the reliance on mutual agreement procedures to determine tax treaty residence.
Scharff and Shanske [328] challenges the traditional view that cities should primarily rely on taxes from immobile sources like real property and avoid local income taxes due to the ease of taxpayer mobility. It argues that local income taxes can be a valuable revenue source for municipalities, provided they are administratively manageable and levied at competitive rates. The article also considers the impact of remote work on local income taxation.
Saura et al. [329] conducts an analysis of user-generated content on Twitter to gain insights into the opportunities and challenges associated with remote work enabled by digital technologies and platforms. Employing sentiment analysis and topic modeling, the study identifies 11 distinct topics. These topics encompass positive aspects such as work-life balance and engagement, as well as negative facets like stress and privacy concerns. The findings offer valuable insights that can inform the strategies of companies and policymakers as they navigate the landscape of remote work.
Ferreira et al. [330] investigates the adoption of remote work (RW) in organizations, particularly in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Through a systematic literature review and qualitative interviews with RW professionals, the study identifies 57 decision factors and 16 relationships between them. Cost reduction and flexibility are seen as positive outcomes, while challenges include communication, technical issues, and management concerns. Positive aspects of RW adoption are more recognized among professionals than negative ones.
Gould et al. [331] discusses the rapid transition to remote work during the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on various types of work. It highlights how employers turned to digital surveillance tools to monitor remote employees, despite conceptual limitations. The paper also emphasizes the need for more inclusive research in human-centred computing to represent a broader spectrum of work experiences beyond knowledge workers and emerging work forms.
Thomson [332] explores the business benefits of flexible working, challenging the perception of it as solely a "family-friendly" benefit. It provides an overview of flexible working, illustrates its advantages through business and individual case studies, and proposes a model for its strategic implementation within organizations.
King and Spry [333] examines the current landscape of remote work, including biases and cultural aspects, offering insights on how organizations can effectively support both leaders and employees in blended (remote and colocated) teams. It addresses the challenge of breaking the stigma associated with remote work and building trust between leaders and remote teams, proposing potential solutions and avenues for further research.
Hensher et al. [334] explore the enduring changes brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly the widespread adoption of working from home (WFH) and remote work. Their article reviews post-pandemic research and offers insights into the anticipated lasting effects on the land transport sector. These changes signify a significant transformation in how transportation is utilized and perceived, reflecting the evolving landscape of work and commuting in a post-pandemic world.
Tudy [335] explores the experiences of Filipino professionals who transitioned from corporate jobs to work-from-home online freelancing. Through qualitative interviews, it uncovers challenges such as distractions and lack of recognition, while highlighting benefits like freedom, family time, and flexibility. The study suggests that freelancing offers alternative employment opportunities and underscores the importance of educating and informing individuals about freelance options, especially during challenging times like a pandemic.
Bloom et al. [336] analyzes the text content of US patent applications to identify those related to technologies supporting video conferencing, telecommuting, remote interactivity, and working from home (WFH). The study found that the share of new patent applications focused on WFH technologies more than doubled from January to September 2020, surpassing previous peaks. This suggests that the COVID-19 pandemic has led to increased innovation in technologies that enhance remote work, which may continue to shape the future of work even after the pandemic subsides.
Ozimek [337] examines the long-term impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on remote work. It is based on two waves of survey data collected from 1,500 hiring managers, including executives, VPs, and managers. The surveys were conducted in November 2019 and April 2020, allowing for a comparison of attitudes and plans before and during the pandemic. The results suggest that remote work has exceeded expectations for hiring managers, and the perceived benefits are leading to increased plans for remote hiring in the future, indicating a continued trend towards greater remote work.
Phillips [338] discusses the accelerated adoption of remote working during the COVID-19 pandemic and its potential long-term impacts. It highlights the importance of effective leadership and management, communication, documentation, and maintaining a shared culture and values in successful remote work arrangements. The article suggests that many organizations are likely to adopt a hybrid model that combines office and remote work in the future.
Sull et al. [339] discusses the challenges and solutions associated with the rapid shift to remote work during the COVID-19 pandemic. It highlights the importance of effective communication, support for physical and mental health, and strategies to maintain productivity and engagement among remote employees. The article also emphasizes the need for organizations to adapt performance evaluations for remote work scenarios.
Guerreiro et al. [340] examines the impact of remote work on foreign residents in global cities, considering factors like property ownership, renters, production, congestion, and amenities. The research suggests that the optimal policy should involve transfers to address potential externalities, rather than restricting, taxing, or subsidizing home purchases by foreign residents. This approach aims to internalize agglomeration and congestion effects effectively.
Gibbs et al. [341] reflects on the impact of COVID-19 on the concept of "home" for economically and socially privileged middle- and upper-middle-class single women in India. It discusses how women have taken on additional roles as caregivers and homemakers while working from home during the pandemic, highlighting the gendered division of labor and the challenges faced. The article also critiques the emphasis on individual productivity during the lockdown and calls for a reevaluation of the concept of productivity in the pandemic age, emphasizing empathy and solidarity.
Vohra and Garg [342] discusses a study conducted on Twitter data related to the topic of working from home during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study collected over 450,000 English-language tweets and applied various preprocessing techniques to clean and prepare the data. The main focus of the study is the development and evaluation of a fine-tuned Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) model to analyze the sentiment of these tweets, categorizing them into positive, negative, or neutral sentiments using VADER sentiment analysis. Additionally, the study incorporated FastText word embeddings to enhance the model's performance. The CNN model achieved high accuracy in sentiment classification, outperforming other standard classifiers like Support Vector Machine, Naive Bayes, Decision Tree, and Random Forest. The results showed that a significant portion of the tweets expressed positive sentiments toward working from home.
Jain and Nayyar [343] addresses the issue of employee turnover, which can negatively impact organizations. To predict and mitigate this problem, the paper proposes a novel machine learning-based approach using XGBoost, a robust algorithm. By analyzing data from HR databases, the model aims to accurately predict whether employees are likely to leave or stay in the organization, helping organizations make informed decisions to retain or replace employees effectively. The system demonstrated high precision and accuracy in predicting employee turnover behavior.
Ayvaz and Alpay [344] developed a data-driven predictive maintenance system for manufacturing production lines, leveraging real-time data from IoT sensors. The system aims to detect potential failures in advance using machine learning, enabling operators to take preventive actions and avoid production stoppages. Evaluation with real-world IoT data showed that the system effectively identified potential failure indicators. Ensemble algorithms like Random Forest and XGBoost outperformed individual algorithms, and the best models have been integrated into the factory's production system.
Barrero et al. [345] highlight the substantial transition to working from home (WFH) triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic. They predict that 20% of full workdays will continue to be remote in the post-pandemic era, a notable increase from the pre-pandemic 5%. This shift is fueled by positive WFH experiences, increased investments in WFH infrastructure, reduced stigma, health considerations, and technological advancements. It is expected to yield benefits for employees, reduce expenditure in city centers, and offer a 5% boost in productivity. Many of these gains, particularly those associated with time saved on commuting, may not be readily apparent in conventional productivity metrics.
Wu and Chen [346] delves into the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, which compelled many individuals to adopt a work-from-home (WFH) setup. Their national survey reveals that WFH led to an increase in workload by an average of three hours per week for all participants. Furthermore, 38% reported reduced productivity attributable to technical issues in online communication. These changes in workload and productivity varied across different occupations, with office-based roles experiencing higher workloads, while on-site jobs and research roles faced reduced workloads due to the impracticality of WFH. The research underscores the importance of addressing technical challenges and enhancing human-computer interaction to boost WFH productivity, especially for tasks that traditionally require on-site presence or laboratory work.
Tejero et al. [347] examined the impact of the COVID-19-induced work-from-home (WFH) setup on job-related and psychosocial factors. Findings revealed a decline in psychological detachment (PD), sleep quality, increased stress, and reduced social support (SS) during WFH. Structural equation modeling (SEM) demonstrated that PD influenced stress and sleep, which in turn affected productivity. SS played a significant role in maintaining work-life balance (WLB). Therefore, promoting PD and SS among employees is crucial for enhancing productivity and WLB in WFH arrangements.
Vandana and Nihar [348] This article explores key variables affecting remote work, such as input, output, productivity, employee characteristics, workplace analytics, working hours, and network patterns. Statical and manual analysis may have limitations in accurately assessing remote work, emphasizing the need for comprehensive evaluation and data-driven decisions regarding its continuation.
Olsen et al. [349] investigates the impact of job demands and resources on job stress and engagement among young employees working remotely during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using data from a Norwegian telecommunications company, the research found that challenging work tasks increased stress, while factors like work–life balance, leader support, and overtime were linked to higher job engagement. Having a dedicated home workspace didn't significantly affect stress or engagement, and there were no gender differences observed.
Chen et al. [350] examines the impact of working from home (WFH) on various work-related outcomes among a sample of employees who frequently or fully embraced WFH. The findings indicate that working from home five days a week, compared to never WFH, was associated with reduced work distraction, increased perceived productivity/engagement, greater job satisfaction, and fewer work-family conflicts. However, the study also suggests that long work hours, caregiving responsibilities, and a strong sense of meaningful work could potentially diminish the positive effects of WFH. Further research is needed to better understand the implications of WFH in the post-pandemic era and how to support remote workers effectively.
Conclusion
The literature shows that digital nomadism is reshaping work, mobility, identity, community, and organizational life at the same time. Its flexibility and location independence create opportunities for autonomy, global participation, and new forms of collaboration, but they also introduce challenges involving social isolation, work-life boundaries, inequality, taxation, mobility regimes, and employment insecurity. Digital nomadism is therefore best understood not simply as a remote-work trend, but as a broader sociological transformation whose long-term effects will depend on how institutions, employers, communities, and workers adapt to increasingly mobile and digitally mediated forms of work.
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