Introduction Martin Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses of 1517 began as propositions for academic debate about indulgences and repentance. They did not yet contain every doctrine later associated with Lutheranism, and they were not a complete rejection of the Roman Catholic Church. Their importance lies in the questions they raised about the authority to remit penalties, the spiritual effect of indulgences, the use of church revenue, and the responsibilities of the pope

What did Anton Van Leeuwenhoek see with his microscope? Van Leeuwenhoek, with the use of his microscope, spotted very tiny creatures in rainwater. He also made the same observation on lake water. He described a free-floating green algae on the lake, comprising spirally wound serpent-like green streaks spread out in an orderly manner. Van Leeuwenhoek figured the circumference of each of the streaks to be about the thickness of a

What conditions or individuals did Richelieu describe as being obstacles to Louis XIII’s exercise of “sovereignty”? Richelieu proved himself as an untiring servant of the French crown by warming his way up the power ladder till he became Louis XIII’s prime minister. Richelieu described how the nobles carried themselves in a way that portrayed them as not Louis XIII’s subjects who were an obstacle to the majesty’s exercise of sovereignty.

Introduction The expansion of Western European power from the fifteenth through the nineteenth centuries and the growth of capitalism were interconnected developments. Maritime exploration opened routes to the Americas, Africa, and Asia; colonial governments claimed land and labor; merchants accumulated capital through trade; states protected chartered companies; and new financial institutions made large ventures easier to organize. These developments increased the circulation of goods, information, and artistic forms, but they