Introduction
In U.S. history, the struggle for voting rights for the African American community is part of a century-old effort to ensure that, under the U.S. Constitution, all citizens receive equal voting rights. It took years of campaigning, struggle, and activism involving many stakeholders who joined the advocates leading the cause and countered the criticism and reluctance of other stakeholders who wished to preserve the status quo. It undoubtedly had a great impact on American society and the world. The paper will study the movement in its historical context and track its progress toward success, as well as the opposition or support it received from different stakeholders. Strategies to ensure that the voting rights and civil rights of African Americans, as well as other communities, remain protected are also discussed and evaluated. Contemporary issues in voting rights are investigated, along with recommendations that would help ensure civil and voting-rights protections.
Annotated Bibliography
Overton, S. (2013). Voting Rights Disclosure. Harvard Law Review Forum, 127(19), 19-31. Retrieved from https://ssrn.com/abstract=2365620
In a research paper entitled Voting Rights Disclosure by Spencer Overton, the U.S. Supreme Court’s verdict in the landmark Shelby County v. Holder case is discussed, along with its impact on voter-equality legislation. Overton argues that we should not be forced to choose between the Elections Clause and the Fifteenth Amendment because they can both operate at the same time to avert racial discrimination in polling and advance access to the ballot for all Americans.
Johnson, P. C. (2015). Voting Rights And Civil Rights Era Cold Cases: Section Five And The Five Cities Project’. Touro Law Journal Of Race, Gender, & Ethnicity & Berkeley Journal Of African-American Law & Policy, 16(2), 377-390. doi: https://dx.doi.org/https://doi.org/10.15779/Z38PK8P
In an article entitled ‘Voting Rights And Civil Rights Era Cold Cases: Section Five And The Five Cities Project’, the author discusses enfranchisement, exclusion, and denial of electoral participation in historical and contemporary times. The deprivation of voting rights on the basis of ethnicity and race in America and the overlapping forces of disenfranchisement and inequality are discussed through several case studies.
Woodson, A. N. (2015). “There Ain’t No White People Here”: Master Narratives of the Civil Rights Movement in the Stories of Urban Youth. Urban Education, 1-28. doi:10.1177/0042085915602543
The article “There Ain’t No White People Here”: Master Narratives of the Civil Rights Movement in the Stories of Urban Youth uses the theoretical concept of master narrative to investigate ideological and historical assumptions regarding the Civil Rights Movement among interviewed youth in an urban community. The researcher presents four themes existing in the movement’s master narrative to demonstrate how ideologies of white supremacy are reinforced through these narratives.
Sturm, C. (2014). Race, Sovereignty, and Civil Rights: Understanding the Cherokee Freedmen Controversy. Cultural Anthropology, 29(3), 575-598. doi: https://doi.org/10.14506/ca29.3.07
The article ‘Race, Sovereignty, and Civil Rights: Understanding the Cherokee Freedmen Controversy’ uses the ‘Cherokee Freedmen’ debate to study how discourse diminishes or empowers tribal authority. It observes the response of people in a settler-colonial context when the application of civil rights comes into conflict with tribal rights and analyzes how settler colonialism can obscure racial power dynamics and weaken Native tribal nationality and identity.
Joni Hersch, J. B. (2015). Fifty Years Later: The Legacy Of The Civil Rights Act Of 1964. (K. A. Couch, Ed.) Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 34(2), 424-456. Retrieved from https://law.vanderbilt.edu/phd/faculty/joni-hersch/2015_Hersch_and_Shinall_Legacy_of_Civil_Rights_Act_Journal_of_Policy_Analysis_and_Management.pdf
In the article entitled ‘Fifty Years Later: The Legacy Of The Civil Rights Act Of 1964’, Joni Hersch (2015) evaluates the legacy of the Civil Rights Act over 50 years, studying its scope, history, and impact on employment, wages, and social exclusion as a result of the Act’s protections. The article presents evidence that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 helped improve employment and wage outcomes for women and Black Americans in the market.
Harris, F. C. (2015). The Next Civil Rights Movement? Dissent, 34-39. Retrieved from https://franklinhslibrary.pbworks.com/w/file/fetch/101640115/Black%20Lives%20Matter.pdf
In an article entitled ‘The Next Civil Rights Movement?’ The author discusses the achievements of the 1960s movement relating to political and civil rights of which Black people had previously been deprived. The author also points to the racialized mistreatment that Black people continued to endure at the hands of the police in the context of Black Lives Matter demonstrations and discusses police-reform policy within a civil-rights framework.
Policy Formation
Introduction
As the Reconstruction era concluded in 1877, states in the South of the American republic introduced new laws restricting African American voting rights. After the Civil War, African Americans were granted citizenship through a series of legal achievements, including the Fifteenth Amendment of 1870, which protected their right to vote against racial discrimination. Despite these protections, many southern states opposed racial equality and circumvented the law by mandating tests and other requirements designed to prevent African Americans from registering and participating in the election process. Due to this, policy reform was needed. Election law was subsequently modified and re-established to protect voting access, and African Americans eventually secured stronger legal protection for the right to vote. One of the primary goals of stakeholders in the Civil Rights Movement was to register Southern African American voters so that they could gain political power.
Democratic Processes
The Fifteenth Amendment was ratified in 1870 after the Civil War and prohibited denying citizens the right to vote on the basis of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. However, many states and localities circumvented the law by introducing difficult tests and requirements that prevented African Americans from registering to vote. Rules such as literacy tests, poll taxes, and grandfather clauses continued to create obstacles to Black voting. In 1964, the Civil Rights Act was approved, providing major protections against discrimination. President John F. Kennedy proposed comprehensive civil-rights legislation in 1963, and President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act into law on July 2, 1964. In 1965, Martin Luther King Jr. and other civil-rights leaders advocated for stronger voting protections, while President Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act into law on August 6, 1965. Therefore, federal election law and enforcement were strengthened, and African Americans gained greater practical access to the vote.
Stakeholders
The primary stakeholders in the process were African Americans. Their long struggle for voting rights was part of a century-old effort to make sure that all citizens received equal rights under the Constitution of the United States, not just white citizens. In 1861, many members of the public living in the North opposed the expansion or continuation of slavery, while many in the South sought to uphold the status quo. The Civil War then began between the Union and the Confederacy. As the years passed, the Harlem Renaissance and other cultural developments increased public awareness of African American experiences. Systemic racial discrimination, however, continued into the mid-20th century. One important example was the Montgomery Bus Boycott, in which tens of thousands of Black residents refused to use segregated buses until discriminatory practices were challenged. In 1964, the Civil Rights Act was approved, and as a result of continued mobilization, the Voting Rights Act was passed a year later in 1965.
Final Thoughts
The right to vote was a major step not only for the Civil Rights Movement but also for democracy. It can be said that the Civil Rights Movement was a great success and produced a substantial change in society’s values. Today, it is difficult to envision legally mandated separate sections for different races on buses or other forms of public transportation. However, there are still many issues related to racial discrimination that continue to affect people. Activist movements for the freedom and participation of Black people in American society generated growing demands for civil liberties that were intertwined with voting rights.
Program Factors and Program Accountability
A number of factors worked together to make the civil-rights and voting-rights movement successful. Some historical factors are discussed to understand how the movement thrived during the 1960–1970 period, how its stakeholders carried it toward success, and how funding and strategies helped it gain traction despite opposition from critics. Furthermore, issues surrounding voting rights in the contemporary context are also monitored, highlighting current concerns in order to evaluate how these protections are functioning today and how they remain relevant in stakeholders’ lives.
Stakeholders
The main stakeholders of the Civil Rights Movement and, in particular, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 were African American communities that were facing racial as well as systemic discrimination even after the Fifteenth Amendment. Despite protections offered by the Fifteenth Amendment, racial equality was still opposed by many southern states that circumvented the law by introducing different tests that served as barriers preventing Black citizens from registering and taking part in the election process. One of the primary goals of the Civil Rights Movement was to register Southern African American voters so that they could gain political power. Systemic racial discrimination, however, continued into the mid-20th century, including segregation on public transportation.
There was a separation between white passengers, who generally sat in the front seats of buses, and Black passengers, who were made to sit in the back; front seats were reserved for white Americans. Tens of thousands of Black residents joined the Montgomery Bus Boycott and agreed not to use the buses until the segregation system was changed. The 1964 Civil Rights Act contained provisions that barred discrimination in employment and public accommodations and strengthened federal efforts against segregation. An Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was formed to address discriminatory employment practices, and a Community Relations Service was established to assist communities with issues related to civil rights. Federal education authorities were also given tools to address school segregation. A coalition of labor unions, religious groups, and civil-rights organizations exerted pressure from the grassroots level to lobby for support for the bill. The legislation ultimately passed Congress and was signed into law in 1964.
Advocates
The 1964 Civil Rights Act was approved after years of activist lobbying for comprehensive civil-rights legislation under which people would receive stronger guarantees of equal civil rights. President Lyndon B. Johnson, after the assassination of President Kennedy in 1963, gave top priority to the bill’s passage and signed the Civil Rights Act into law on July 2, 1964. Martin Luther King Jr. and other civil-rights leaders later advocated for the Voting Rights Act, which President Johnson signed into law on August 6, 1965. Civil-rights workers endured vicious beatings and murders during the broader struggle, which led some Black activists to become radicalized and doubtful of integrationist, nonviolent tactics and to seek a more radical approach. Six hundred activists set out on a march on March 7, 1965, from Selma, Alabama, toward Montgomery in an event that came to be known as “Bloody Sunday.”
The activists organized a peaceful protest because of continued violations of African American civil rights, but state law-enforcement officers attacked them without provocation, leading to widespread violence and injuries. This convinced President Johnson that additional voting-rights legislation was required to address the situation (Berman, 2015). Malcolm X’s activism also left a lasting effect on the Civil Rights Movement. His ideas influenced and reinforced traditions of Black self-reliance and self-determination.
Critics
The movement had its share of resistance. Despite the fact that President Kennedy had sent the bill to Congress in 1963 before the March on Washington, congressional opponents used delay tactics to block or slow its passage. Southern politicians who held segregationist views, including James Eastland of Mississippi, strongly opposed civil-rights legislation. Due to these efforts, resistance continued even following the bill’s enactment. Another segregationist was George Wallace, governor of Alabama, who was also a vocal critic of the movement. His campaigns involved strong anti-integration rhetoric that related the movement to the loss of traditional American values. This rhetoric later contributed to the rise of social conservatism in many parts of the United States (Carter, 2000). Following the legislation, some public establishments attempted to convert themselves into private clubs rather than implement new desegregation rules and admit African Americans. Such efforts were later restricted by federal law and judicial decisions (John Hope Franklin, 2011).
Impact
The impact of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 continues to affect society today, despite more recent controversies. Federal civil-rights and voting-rights laws restricted literacy tests and other discriminatory practices that had been used to prevent Southern Black Americans from casting their votes. The U.S. attorney general and federal officials were given stronger authority to ensure compliance in jurisdictions where African Americans had been disenfranchised. In the South, patterns of political power were transformed by the Voting Rights Act (Risen, 2014). The results included major increases in African American voter registration, and hundreds of Black candidates were elected to office in subsequent years. Political parties and candidates increasingly had to appeal to Black voters. The Act not only expanded the scope of federal voting-rights protections but also transformed voter dynamics in local and state governments. Its impact is indisputable, and overt racial discrimination in voting became far less legally permissible than it had been decades earlier. Racial discrimination, however, did not end completely in society, and Black people continue to experience racist behavior and bias. Black Lives Matter demonstrations led to widespread criticism of police actions, and reform policies within a civil-rights framework were discussed as a result (Harris, 2015).
Monitoring
The Act has become part of America’s national history. It provided meaningful legal remedies to minority citizens. The Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act continued to influence many social-justice movements that followed. Many studies have evaluated the social dynamics of racism in order to monitor the performance and effects of the legislation and the broader movement. One study used the theoretical concept of master narrative to investigate ideological and historical assumptions regarding the Civil Rights Movement. Based on interviews with youth in an urban community, the researcher presented four themes existing in the movement’s master narrative to demonstrate how ideologies of white supremacy can be reinforced through these narratives (Woodson, 2015).
The research provides insights into how master narratives of the Civil Rights and Voting Rights movements shape the perceptions of Black youth and shed light on racial dynamics still present in society despite the success of the civil-rights and voting-rights movement in 1964–1965. Similar studies are useful for monitoring the results and implications of the movement and how they remain relevant today.
Another important issue was the U.S. Supreme Court’s verdict in the landmark Shelby County v. Holder case regarding provisions of the Voting Rights Act. The provisions concerned certain states and local governments obtaining federal preclearance before making changes to voting practices or laws, based on their histories of discrimination in voting. The Court decided that the coverage formula in Section 4(b) was unconstitutional because it imposed a burden on principles of equal sovereignty among the states and was no longer responsive to current conditions. As a result of the decision, some states implemented or enforced voter-identification laws and other changes without the former preclearance process (Overton, 2013). These developments point toward how the Voting Rights Act has operated throughout the years and the contemporary challenges the legislation faces. Prevailing social attitudes can also be monitored and compared with those existing when the Act was passed.
Funding
The movements that led to enactment of the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act received funding from different quarters, including state and non-state sources. In 1957, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference was formed as an alliance of church leaders that offered leadership assistance and training to complement local efforts against segregation. It raised funds, mostly from Northern sources, to support campaigns in the South. It adopted nonviolence as a central method in challenging racism. In 1962, the SNCC used funds from the Voter Education Project to organize voter registration in the Mississippi Delta. Its efforts met fierce opposition. However, these activities showed that organizations and alliances that believed in racial equality and civil rights were organizing themselves and funding different campaigns that helped strengthen the movement at the grassroots level, although funding was often limited.
On the opposing side, some state-funded organizations attempted to counter the Civil Rights Movement by utilizing public resources to portray segregationist policies positively. They used their resources to collect information about activists, harass them through legal mechanisms, threaten their employment, or use other forms of economic pressure to suppress the movement.
Strategies
The core strategies used in the movement centered on nonviolence. Leaders of the Civil Rights Movement, such as Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., endorsed this method instead of armed guerrilla uprising. The movement was inspired in part by the nonviolent teachings of Mahatma Gandhi, the Indian independence leader. Large numbers of African Americans participated in peaceful protests, economic boycotts, and acts of civil disobedience led by King and other organizers. They also boycotted buses where segregation was taking place. Students remained at segregated lunch counters until they were served or removed. The 1963 March on Washington brought hundreds of thousands of demonstrators who demanded equal access to quality education, public facilities, decent housing, and adequate employment for African Americans and was a major success. This was when Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his famous ‘I Have a Dream’ speech. Activists not only led protests but also challenged segregation by pursuing legislative reforms and litigation through the courts, all of which contributed to the movement. The struggle for equal rights continues, including demands for accountability concerning racially motivated violence that occurred during the Civil Rights Era. Institutions and individuals can still face scrutiny for racially motivated acts against victims who were struggling to obtain voting and civil rights (Johnson, 2015).
Final Thoughts
The right to vote was a major step not only for the Civil Rights Movement but also for democracy. It can be said that the Civil Rights Movement was a great success and produced a substantial change in society’s values. Today, it is difficult to envision legally mandated separate sections for different races on buses or other forms of public transportation. However, there are still many issues related to racial discrimination that continue to affect people. Activist movements for the freedom and participation of Black people in American society generated growing demands for civil liberties that were intertwined with voting rights.
Program Outcomes and Recommendations
The Voting Rights Act, which was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1965, brought many changes to the American political system. The intended outcome of the program was to remove or overcome barriers at the state and local levels that prevented Black citizens from exercising their right to vote and from being elected to public office. As a result, Black communities gained representatives in state and local assemblies and in Congress, while broader civil-rights reforms also contributed to improved employment and economic opportunities. Although racial discrimination began to decline in some formal settings, attitudes did not disappear with the passage of legislation alone.
Intended Outcome(s)
The Voting Rights Act, which was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1965, brought many changes to the American political system. The first aim of the program was to remove or overcome barriers at the state and local levels that prevented Black citizens from exercising their right to vote and from being elected. According to Beyerlein (2016), the Voting Rights Act altered political participation by making it possible for many more African Americans to register and vote. In states such as Mississippi, the number of Black registered voters increased greatly, and Black candidates were elected to various political offices. In later decades, job opportunities also expanded for many Black Americans, while increasing numbers of African Americans were elected and appointed to public offices across the country. It is, therefore, evident that the Voting Rights Act contributed to increased political participation and helped support broader social and economic change. African Americans registered to vote, and many were elected to political positions as well.
Actual Outcome(s)
The actual outcomes of the Voting Rights Act included the election of more African Americans to public office, and therefore Black communities gained representatives in state and local assemblies and even Congress. This improved the political bargaining power of African Americans, and public officials had greater incentives to respond to low-income and poor Black communities. As described by economist Gavin Wright, one immediate outcome of the Voting Rights Act was a change in government responsiveness toward Black communities. Even though African Americans started to win various public offices, another important achievement was that white politicians increasingly sought the support of influential members of Black communities (Lopez, 2015).
The presence of African Americans increasingly came to be felt in courthouses and statehouses where political lobbying and policymaking occurred. African Americans obtained more employment opportunities, incomes in some Black communities increased, and additional opportunities became available. According to Lopez (2015), even remote areas with large Black populations received greater political attention and public resources. It is, therefore, evident that the Voting Rights Act changed the political landscape in America and contributed to important economic and social gains. Therefore, the Voting Rights Act is viewed by many Americans as one of the most far-reaching pieces of civil-rights legislation in United States history.
Match
It is evident that the intended and actual outcomes of the Voting Rights Act were designed to benefit African Americans in society. As stated by Barrett (2013), one benefit of the Voting Rights Act was that it protected the ability of Black citizens to register as voters, vote, and be elected to public office. This increased the number of African Americans participating in politics and public life, which benefited Black communities. However, one unintended consequence associated with implementation of the Act was that political actors sometimes engaged in racialized redistricting strategies. The enfranchisement of millions of African Americans changed electoral incentives, and political coalitions sometimes collaborated in drawing districts that separated voters along racial and partisan lines (Barrett, 2013).
Despite the achievement of stronger voting rights, racial discrimination against Black communities continued. Segregation in public facilities and other forms of discrimination did not disappear immediately. Before the Voting Rights Act, state and local governments had used devices such as poll taxes and literacy tests to make it difficult for Black voters to participate. The Act was intended to restrict such discriminatory practices and provide stronger federal enforcement.
Recommendations
African American voter registration increased dramatically after the Voting Rights Act was signed, even though implementation and enforcement still faced resistance. Large voter turnouts in elections after the Act were witnessed even in the South. Despite this success, today there is still a need for policy reforms that ensure voting rights remain protected and unnecessary discrepancies and barriers are removed. Multifaceted process improvements are needed, from education to policy reform to the introduction of new measures, with appropriate funding strategies devised to channel resources into programs that protect participation. A performance-measurement and monitoring program to evaluate the efficacy of policy reforms should accompany these measures and provide further recommendations for improving the process.
Evaluation
Research has established that the Voting Rights Act brought several changes to the American political landscape. The number of African Americans registered as voters increased, and many African Americans were elected to office after enactment and enforcement of the law. It is, therefore, evident that the Voting Rights Act’s objective of expanding political participation was substantially advanced. Studies have also indicated that civil-rights and voting-rights reforms contributed to reducing some forms of economic inequality affecting African Americans. African American voter registration increased dramatically in the years after the Voting Rights Act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson (Barrett, 2013).
This represented a significant shift in American politics and increased the political importance of African American voters. Even though implementation of the Voting Rights Act by state and federal governments faced resistance, voter turnout across the Southern states increased and challenged the political status quo in several states.
Process Improvements
One possible recommendation is to increase voter registration and participation across the United States by making registration more accessible and ensuring that every eligible voter has a practical opportunity to participate in elections. It is also recommended that the capacity of young African Americans be strengthened through training and workshops so that they can become active and involved in various political platforms. Voting procedures should also be streamlined, and unnecessary bottlenecks that hinder participation should be removed to ensure that every eligible citizen can participate. Educational training and other activities that can improve civic understanding should be conducted continuously so that people are familiar with voting processes, not only during election periods.
Funding Strategies
Voting-rights education and participation initiatives can be funded using various strategies, including support from civic organizations, philanthropic donors, political organizations, and state and federal programs where legally appropriate. Civil organizations and other non-state actors can directly fund activities that educate populations about the right to vote and mobilize Black communities and other eligible voters to participate in elections. Funds can be obtained through partnerships with donors and organizations willing to work together to educate the public on matters of voting. It is also recommended that public agencies adequately fund election administration, voter education, and registration systems. This can improve the effectiveness and accessibility of the electoral process and therefore benefit the general public through increased public participation.
It is also appropriate for state governments to provide adequate resources for election administration and voter education. Within state budgets, legislatures can allocate funds for elections, education, and voter outreach (M. Holzer, 2016). This can be achieved by ensuring that election agencies have sufficient funding to facilitate activities that enable eligible citizens, including Black communities, to participate in the political process.
Political parties, including Democrats and Republicans, also fund voter-registration and mobilization activities. Because political parties are important stakeholders in elections, they may support lawful education and mobilization programs designed to encourage eligible citizens to register and vote.
Measurement
The effectiveness of the recommendations can be measured on the basis of several factors, such as the number of African Americans registered to vote, voter turnout in districts with large African American populations, and the number of African Americans running for and being elected to public office. Increased participation by members of Black communities in political debates and elections may indicate that the recommendations are working and should be continued. It is also appropriate to conduct studies and surveys to analyze public understanding of issues related to voting and voter registration so that researchers can establish whether funding directed toward voting-rights education and election administration has improved public knowledge and political participation.
Conclusion
The Voting Rights Act changed the political landscape and brought many new participants into American politics. Millions of African Americans have registered as voters, millions participate in elections, and many have been elected to public offices across the country. The right to vote was a major step not only for the Civil Rights Movement but also for democracy. It can be said that the Civil Rights Movement was a great success and produced a substantial change in society’s values. Today, it is difficult to envision legally mandated separate sections for different races on buses or other forms of public transportation. However, there are still many issues related to racial discrimination that continue to affect people. Activist movements for the freedom and participation of Black people in American society generated growing demands for civil liberties that were intertwined with voting rights.
It is also appropriate to conclude that the Voting Rights Act contributed to stronger political representation for African Americans, while broader civil-rights reforms expanded economic and employment opportunities. It is therefore important for state and federal governments, political organizations, and non-state civic actors to support lawful activities that improve participation by Black communities and other eligible voters through registration, education, accessible election administration, and voting-rights protection.
References
Barrett, P. M. (2013). The Unintended Consequences of the Voting Rights Act. Journal American Political and History, 2-15.
Berman, A. (2015). Give Us the Ballot: The Modern Struggle for Voting Rights in America. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.
Beyerlein, K. (2016). Black Voting During the Civil Rights Movement: A Micro-Level Analysis. Kenneth T. Andrews, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 82(12), 2-45.
Carter, D. T. (2000). The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.
Harris, F. C. (2015). The Next Civil Rights Movement? Dissent, 34-39. Retrieved from https://franklinhslibrary.pbworks.com/w/file/fetch/101640115/Black%20Lives%20Matter.pdf
Hayter, J. M. (2012). To End Divisions: Reflections On The Civil Rights. Richmond Journal Of Law And The Public Interest [Vol. XVIII:iv, 12(7), 2-38.
John Hope Franklin, E. B. (2011). From Slavery to Freedom: A History of African Americans (9th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Johnson, P. C. (2015). Voting Rights And Civil Rights Era Cold Cases: Section Five And The Five Cities Project’. Touro Law Journal Of Race, Gender, & Ethnicity & Berkeley Journal Of African-American Law & Policy, 16(2), 377-390. doi: https://dx.doi.org/https://doi.org/10.15779/Z38PK8P
Joni Hersch, J. B. (2015). Fifty Years Later: The Legacy Of The Civil Rights Act Of 1964. (K. A. Couch, Ed.) Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 34(2), 424-456. Retrieved from https://law.vanderbilt.edu/phd/faculty/joni-hersch/2015_Hersch_and_Shinall_Legacy_of_Civil_Rights_Act_Journal_of_Policy_Analysis_and_Management.pdf
Lopez, G. (2015). How the Voting Rights Act transformed black voting rights in the South, in one chart. Journal of Science and Politics, 2-35.
M. Holzer, R. S. (2016). Public Administration: An Introduction (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
May, G. (2014). Bending Toward Justice: The Voting Rights Act and the Transformation of American Democracy. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Overton, S. (2013). Voting Rights Disclosure. Harvard Law Review Forum, 127(19), 19-31. Retrieved from https://ssrn.com/abstract=2365620
Risen, C. (2014). The Bill of the Century: The Epic Battle for the Civil Rights Act. New York: Bloomsbury Press.
Woodson, A. N. (2015). “There Ain’t No White People Here”: Master Narratives of the Civil Rights Movement in the Stories of Urban Youth. Urban Education, 1-28. doi:10.1177/0042085915602543
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