Medical

The Cardiovascular System Analysis

The cardiac conduction system comprises a specialized network of cells located in the heart that produce and spread electrical signals through the heart to facilitate contraction. In other words, the pumping process of the heart is regulated by cardiac conduction (Mendelsohn and Karas, 2008). On the other hand, the cardiac cycle refers to a series of events that take place when the heart beats. The cardiac cycle is driven by the force of cardiac conduction, which comprises an electrical system whose role is to power the cardiovascular system and the cardiac cycle. The cardiac cycle encompasses two phases: the systole and the diastole phase. In the diastole phase, contraction of the ventricle occurs, and blood is pumped out to the arteries from the heart. In the diastole phase, relaxation of ventricles occurs, and blood is filled in the heart.

The heart comprises two specialized cells which trigger the conduction of the heart. Heart conduction involves depolarisation and repolarisation, which are electrical sequences referred to as inherent rhythmicity. The sinoatrial node produces the electrical signal and spreads to the ventricular muscle through particular conducting pathways. The conducting pathways include the intermodal pathways, the atrioventricular node, the atria fibers, the bundle of His, and the left and the right bundle branches when the depolarisation electrical signal reaches the contractile cell, contraction takes place (Lepeschkin 1950, p280). On the other hand, when the repolarisation signal spreads to the myocardial cells, relaxation occurs. In essence, the electrical signals lead to the mechanical pumping action of the heart.

Each electrical and mechanical cycle is initiated by the SA node, which acts as the normal heart pacemaker. After the depolarisation of the SA node, electrical stimulus extends through the atrial muscle, triggering the contraction of the muscle. Therefore, the depolarisation of the SA node is accompanied by the contraction of the atrial. Additionally, The SA node extends to the AV node through the internodal fibers. However, the depolarisation wave does not extend to the ventricles right away due to the presence of a non-conducting tissue that separates the atria from the ventricles (Mitchell, Kaufman and Iwamoto, 2014). The electrical signal is stuck in the AV node for about 0.20 seconds after the contraction of the atria; eventually, the signal is spread to the ventricles through the bundle of His, left and right bundle branches and then to the Purkinje fibers. The Purkinje fibers then transmit the electrical signals to the ventricular muscles directly, causing the ventricles to contract (ventricular systole). The SA node repolarisation is also transmitted via the atria and then the ventricles, triggering the relaxation phase (ventricular diastole). Even though the heart creates its beat, the physiological foundation of the heart rate and the contraction strength is generated from the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions located within the nervous system (Boer et al. 1985, p150).

The sympathetic system acts as an accelerator; it speeds up and increases to contraction force of the heart. When more oxygen is needed in the body for instance during exercise or in the case of a drop in the blood pressure, the sympathetic input increases, leading a faster heart rate and increase in the contraction strength. Sympathetic influence fastens during inhalation. On the other hand, the parasympathetic input acts as a break; it slows down the heart. During relaxation, the parasympathetic inputs take full control, and the rate of heartbeat, in turn, slows down. The parasympathetic influence increases during the process of exhalation as the heart muscles relax.

Generally, the conducting pathway integrates together with the cardiac cycle processes to facilitate the movement of blood throughout the body. The conducting system initiates a normal cardiac cycle as well as the contraction of the cardiac chambers through which blood and various electrical impulses are transmitted throughout the body. Ultimately, for an effective blood pumping process and the pulmonary and systemic circulations to take place effectively and in synchrony, the events in the cardiac cycle must be coordinated with the heart’s conducting system.

Task 2: Differences and similarities between arteries, veins and capillaries

Structural differences

To begin with, arteries are thicker and muscular. The thickness of the walls helps the arteries to withstand high pressure. The masculine walls help in vasoconstriction and vasodilation as well as ineffective regulation of blood pressure. Veins have thin and non-muscular walls. They are structurally thin blood vessels to allow the surrounding muscles to press against them and aid in pushing blood towards the heart (Uddman, 2017, p. 170). They lack masculine walls as blood in them flows in low pressure. On the other hand, capillaries have a one-cell thick wall, which enables easy diffusion of substances in and out of the capillaries. They are the smallest blood vessels.

Additionally, veins have valves that prevent the backflow of blood as blood flows under low pressure. Arteries do not have valves as blood flows under high pressure; hence, there is no chance of backflow of blood. Capillaries are also valve-less.

Arteries have a thick outer layer made up of collagen and elastic fibers, which aid in preventing bulges and leakages, while capillaries have pores within their wall, which allow for the leakage of plasma fluid, which is essential in transporting body substances. On the other hand, veins have a thin layer made up of a few elastic fibers for easy transportation of blood.

Functional Differences

Arteries move oxygenated blood away from the heart to other body organs, while Veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. On the other hand, capillaries transport blood away from the body and also allow the exchange of carbon dioxide, oxygen, nutrients and waste products in the body. They also serve as a link between veins and arteries.

Similarities

Arteries, veins and capillaries all carry blood. All blood vessels generally transport blood. Like veins, arteries comprise three layers: an inner layer made up of epithelial cells, an outer layer of tissue and a layer of muscles between them. In distributing blood and nutrients, all three vessels supplement each other. Capillaries connect arteries to veins, hence allowing the exchange of products between them.

Task 3:

The motorcyclist suffered from hemorrhage shock following the occurrence of the accident. Generally, hemorrhage shock refers to a life-threatening condition that results from excessive loss of blood and body fluids. The severe loss of fluid affects the normal functioning of the body in that the heart cannot transfer the necessary amount of blood around the body. This, in turn, poses a life-threatening condition for the patient and, if not quickly corrected, could lead to death (Lewis, 2009). Severe blood loss from the body can result from bleeding wounds and cuts, bleeding of the digestive tract, significant vaginal bleeding as well as internal bleeding- just to mention a few. This type of shock is more common to young children, old people and people involved in severe accidents. It causes many body organs, such as kidneys, to stop functioning effectively. The major Symptoms of haemorrhage shock include but are not limited to –low blood pressure, unconsciousness, rapid pulse rate, body weakness, minimal urine output and a decrease in the overall body temperature.

In addition to the actual blood loss, severe body fluids transpire to the reduction in the volume of blood, which in turn causes nausea, dizziness, increased sweating, excessive vomiting and diarrhea to the victim. These symptoms may not appear immediately but begin to show when the shock progresses (Mendelsohn and Karas, 2008). When severe bleeding occurs, the available blood is not enough for the heart to pump. In this essence, various body parts do not access the essential nutrients and substances hence causing them to begin shutting down.

When od is lost from the body, the mean pulse and arterial pressures fall. The rate of heartbeat increases in relevance to the amount of blood lost by the victim. When the haemorrhage shock is stopped, the pressure of the arteries slowly recovers as the rate of heartbeat declines because the long-term compensatory mechanisms are triggered to fix normal arterial pressure. Administration of body fluids can fasten the quick recovery from the shock.

Therefore, the motorists’ low blood pressure was due to heart failure caused by the low blood volume and perfusion of vital body organs. Additionally, the low blood pressure led to low blood flow within the body organs and, in turn, caused kidney failure, which is directly linked to the minimal urine released from the kidneys.

Compensatory mechanisms

The motorist’s blood vessels had been injured in the event of the accident, leading to increased blood loss. Generally, the decline in blood volume during acute blood loss leads to a reduction in cardiac filling and central venous pressure (Shoemaker, 2013, p. 289). This causes a decline in arterial pressure and cardiac output. However, the body incorporates several compensatory mechanisms that are activated to bring back the blood volume and arterial pressure to normal. These include mechanisms such as the baroreceptor reflexes, which immediately detect any slight changes in blood pressure. The baroreceptors then trigger the sympathetic-adrenal system to fasten the heart rate and contractility. The activation of the sympathetic adrenergic system also influences the coronary blood vessels and the heart, leading to an increase in arterial pressure and systemic vascular resistance. In other words, cardiac output is redistributed from other body organs and into the brain and myocardium which help to promote healing.

The combined effects of sympathetic activation and arterial hypotension stimulate the humeral compensatory mechanism. Sympathetic activation of the adrenal glands triggers the release of catecholamine which strengthens the sympathetic activation effects on vasculature and the heart. The kidneys secrete more renin, which causes an increase in the circulation of aldosterone. The sympathetic activation also stimulates the release of vasopressin and renal water and sodium reabsorption to increase the volume of blood. This renal mechanism is vital in ensuring long-term recovery from the loss of blood.

Assignment 2: Sociology

Task 1: Socialization

In definition, socialization is the process of disseminating and inheriting ideologies, norms and customs, equipping a person with the necessary habits and skills for social participation. In other words, socialization is meant through which cultural and social continuity are realised (Kohlberg, 2017). In sociological theory, socialization assumes a vital role as it forms the underlying process of social interaction, which in turn shapes the essential behavior for effective society participation. Social interaction gives the pathway for the perpetuation and cultural renewal of society. Particularly in children, the process of socialization is dictated by two stages: primary socialization and secondary socialization, which are considered fundamental for the sustainment of all the other essential later forms of socialization. These two stages ensure proper adaptation to social values throughout the lifecycle of a person. Based on this concept of socialization, the processes represent socialization in children as an interactive process through which they interpret social relationships within their cultural and social context.

Primary and secondary socialization are the two basic forms of childhood socialization that justify the children’s characters, inherited norms and customs. Primary socialization is defined as the learning and acceptance of a set of social values and norms which are dictated by the process of socialization. In childhood, this process of socialization is significant as it sets the framework and foundation for all later socialization stages (Parsons and Bales, 2016). Primary socialization is characterized by the children learning the actions, values and attitudes which are deemed appropriate for a person to be a member of a particular society. Parents, caregivers and immediate friends are the main society units that influence primary socialization. This face of socialization gives an individual the basic step to align with social values and prepare the person to develop and create roles in a social context.

The primary socialization process acts as the transformation of children into responsible and social human beings. This is especially done through teaching basic values as well as through language and training from their immediate family members (Maccoby and Martin, 2011). Social systems and social rules are incorporated with the child’s social experiences in order to evoke social and physical responses that are persistent in the context of culture. In this regard, the study of socialization identifies the different functions of institutions such as family, school and media in instilling cultural and social values.

These agents of socialization promote child development in a cognitive and social manner which shapes the psychological behaviours and attitudes during childhood. For instance, a child knows which gender they are and how they are expected to behave dependent on their gender from primary agents of socialization. By the time secondary socialization starts influencing the child’s behavior and attitudes, the children already have an idea of which gender they are and how society expects them to behave in reference to their gender roles. In this regard, secondary agents are responsible for reinforcing what children learn from their primary agents of socialization.

Secondary socialization is a process characterized by the learning of what appropriate behavior entails in regard to being a member of a small unit of society. This type of socialization, through secondary agents of society such as school, reinforces and justifies the behavioral patterns learned from primary socialization during the early stages of childhood. Through this process, children and adults learn responsive behaviours which are deemed appropriate by the society in which they are. Depending on the society in which the individuals are, secondary socialization can result in desirable outcomes as the individuals learn what the society perceives as “normal,” and hence, the social consensus influences the individual’s course of action. On the contrary, in some cases, some individuals do not undergo the experience of these processes of socialization, such as feral children or in other cases, a person learns inappropriate behavioral patterns within a society. In this case scenario, the specified individual is subjected to a resocialization process in which the individual in the subject is taught new values, norms and practices in order to adjust and align with the society in a social context.

The resocialization process exposes a person to new attitudes and skills that are deemed essential and adequate in a particular society and as dictated by the norms and values of the people within it. Society performs an essential role in the psychological development of individuals, and hence, the isolation and lack of social interaction generally result in issues that have been proven to be irreversible (Eastman, 2010). In regards to feral children’s experience, these children are isolated and lack total human contact and hence lack the ability to fit in modern society in terms of behavior, language and what the society perceives as “normal.” For instance, in the case scenario of “Victor of Aveyron,” the boy lived in the woods for nine years without social interaction or human contact of any form. The boy was subjected to a resocialization process through which he was able to learn and adapt some essential norms of civil life. However, the boy did not fully learn the language due to the lack of primary socialization in childhood.

In this essence, the case scenario, the experience of feral children indicates that social deprivation and prevention from normal social interactions influence the mental health and child development process. The process of resocialization is instrumental in correcting the social discrepancies in feral children although the children do not fully learn society norms as compared to other normal children.

In conclusion, all the socialization processes prepare individuals for the achievement of appropriate social life by equipping them with shared behaviors, values, beliefs, norms and attitudes necessary for a normal social context. Primary socialization is essential for childhood development as children learn social practices from their immediate caregivers and parents. Secondary socialization reinforces the behavioral patterns acquired from primary socialization and through which the individuals learn appropriate social behaviors as demanded by society. Lastly, the resocialization process in feral children is instrumental in teaching the affected children new social ways of living even though the children do not learn all the parts of civil life due to mental and childhood development impairment, which is largely irreversible.

Task 2: Influence of gender and class on woman’s identity

Women’s experiences are perceived to be guided and shaped by gender and social class identification. Gender-class differences inflicted by society are evident in women’s behaviors and beliefs, which are key factors in defining women’s identity. Different attitudes and behaviors are expected from both girls and boys in British society. Gender socialization is termed as the impacting knowledge on different behaviors on the basis of gender, which is instrumental in shaping one’s identity in reference to gender. Girls are brought up in conformity to the female role, while boys are raised in conformity to the gender male role. Historically, the concept of gender and class has been used to define a woman’s identity in British society.

Gender role refers to the personal traits, character, attitude, and behavior that are encouraged and expected of the individual on the basis of sex (Benokraitis, 2017). A young British woman’s identity is influenced by social institutions that define gender roles and class identity in reference to the processes of socialization. According to social sciences, institutions refer to mechanisms and structures of social comparison and order aimed at regulating peoples’ behavior, which aid in shaping one’s identity in society. These institutions are defined by the role of social permanents and purpose transcending society lives while setting and enforcing a set of rules that govern the human corporation, behavior and identity. The gender and class socialization institutions are family, school and the media.

Primary socializing agents such as parents and caregivers form the starting point for the shaping of a woman’s identity. Family is viewed as the main source of influence on socialization. In other words, the family is the initial agent of socialization. A child acquires the initial behaviors and identity through the family, which, in turn, define the overall moral conduct and one’s identity in the future. The family institution is significant since it sires the first civilized behaviors. In this essence, the feminine class and gender roles begin in the family. Additionally, families play a vital in influencing one’s identity, emotional health, and personality. It is evident that parents socialise differently with both daughters and sons, for example, boys are allowed to be independent and free at an early stage than girls, they are less counselled on appropriate dating habits and clothing. They are also free from carrying out domestic duties and other household chores, which are termed feminine. On the other hand, girls’ freedom and independence are limited as they are expected to be generally obedient, passive and nurturing and also assume almost all household tasks.

The secondary process of socialization also plays a vital role in establishing the identity of a woman in British society. Secondary socializing agents such as the school nurtures the identity already acquired from the family. In schools, identity is acquired through the official, social or hidden curriculum. The official and social curriculum includes the identity gained by the students from their female teachers, which also influences the shaping of their identity status in society. The school teaches the children about their roles within society in regard to their gender. Subsequently, social class generates expectations and meanings in the objective material. In British society, Upper-class women’s and lower-class women’s social status provide class-based pressure, which dictates how women relate and their occupations in society. These class-based differences define the identity of women and their role in the society.

Through secondary socialization, women in British society are able to determine their identity in reference to their cultural gender roles and social class status. Media institutions such as television, movies, and radio, among others, educate women on ways of establishing and shaping their identity based on examples from fellow women within their social class status. Socialization occurring through radio shows and television programs, which are usually commercialized, is effective in guiding women on how to develop and shape their identity in society.

In conclusion, the inheritance of ideologies and social norms is significant in defining women’s identity, and therefore, primary and secondary socialization plays a vital role in the process of acquiring and inheriting these desired norms and characters aimed at describing one’s identity in society. The socialization process and institutions that outline the gender and class influences and roles can lead individuals to shape their identity. In these assertions, the gender role and social class of women are essential in guiding and shaping their identity.

Assignment 3: Normal and Abnormal Behavior

The concept of Normal and Abnormal Behaviour

Every person has their own defined view of what normal and abnormal behavior entails; hence, their life is defined according to what they perceive to be normal. In this reference, abnormal behavior is described as behavior that is non-usual and non-adaptive and non-usual in society, and it’s widely termed as absurd, and it also has cognitive distortion features (Sarason and Sarason, 2009). The psychological reasoning of an individual defines the concept of normal and abnormal behaviors. In this regard, abnormal behavioral patterns are associated with disruption of psychological reasoning through which an individual develops a disorder, which leads to abnormality.

In the past decades, numerous studies have been subjected to define the concept, which entails what is abnormal in comparison to what is normal. Many researchers seek to determine behaviors on whether they violate the established social values, norms and beliefs or whether they make people feel safe, distressed or threatened. Historically, normal and abnormal behavior patterns have been defined in accordance with the emotional and social tribulations and cognitive distortions of a person.

Models of Abnormality

The models of abnormality incorporate theories that aid in describing the cause of psychological disorders. These models include biological, psychodynamic, cognitive and behavioral approaches, which provide different views on the concept of abnormality. All the models, in conjunction, provide for treatment approaches and extra research on behaviors. However, psychologists have had distinct views on analyzing abnormal behaviors. Some link the origin of abnormal behaviors to psychological behaviors, while others link it to biological effects.

The behavioral approach has also been applied in defining normal and abnormal behaviors. In this perspective, abnormal behaviors are termed uncouth behaviour, which causes personal distress and disturbance. Psychologists who base their ideas on this perspective argue that abnormal behaviors develop from faulty and inefficient learning. They also argue that these behaviors are learned mostly through observing the behaviors of other people and imitating them. Desired treatments are, in turn, administered to correct the behavior disorder. This can be done, for example, through traditional learning procedures to install new and desired behaviors.

The cognitive approach is also applied to understanding behaviors. In this approach, people are believed to get involved in abnormal behaviors due to the presence of certain thoughts and behaviors, which are mostly linked to false assumptions. These thoughts control the mind and body of the victim, making them aggressive and emotionally unstable, forcing them to be involved in abnormal acts. These people view themselves as weak and worthless according to their own thoughts according to several psychologists, helping them acquire new thoughts and values helps them in reducing personal distress. Therapy can also be implemented to aid in unlearning maladaptive behaviors and replacing them with positive ones.

Psychodynamic behavior, on the other hand, also aids in providing depth knowledge and understanding of behaviors (Blatt and Bers, 2010). According to this perspective, mental disorders develop from cases of anxiety and unresolved childhood dreams and conflicts. This approach links with the humanistic approach, which depicts certain uncouth behaviors when people cannot pursue their deep passions and desires in life. Such disorders can be corrected by encouraging the adoption of new resolutions in solving personal conflicts.

Difficulties in defining psychological abnormalities

In defining abnormalities, the discussed classifications are objective, but there arise societal fears that the classified individuals and their respective families may be against the classification. This is due to globalization and the integration of cultures, and hence, some societies’ definitions of abnormal do not meet preset criteria on which behaviors are normal or which behaviors are to be perceived as abnormal based on traditional beliefs. Additionally, the model of abnormality has been only proven to be effective in the treatment of physical illnesses but not mental disorders, as individuals are characterized by what they feel, and this covers many criteria in different individuals. Another difficulty is that clinical psychologists and psychiatrists possess limited information when treating mental disorders, in contrast to those individuals with physical disorders, and hence, this indicates that diagnosing disorders based on this information is partially impossible.

Biological and psychological perspectives of abnormality

Researchers have had distinct views on analyzing abnormal behaviors. Some link the origin of abnormal behaviors to psychological behaviors, while others link it to biological effects (Ullmann and Krasner, 2015). The biological model links abnormal behaviour to the biological system of human nature. In this regard, abnormal behavior is explained in terms of abnormal biology, categorizes abnormal behaviors as a physical condition and views mental disorder as an illness. This model proposes that psychological disorders have underlying biochemical causes in that the abnormalities arise from inherited system defects, germ infection, and trauma, as well as neurochemical factors.

On the other hand, the psychological perspective includes the study of behavioural problems in reference to the actions which define psychological behaviors, while the utilization of biological terms is largely underrated as it lacks empathy in defining actions of individuals in defining abnormalities.

How culture, gender, socio-economic groups and any other factors can influence the incidence and diagnosis of psychological disorders

Different communities have inherited standards of values, attitudes and behavior, and if individual characteristics are outside the established criterion, the specific individual is described as abnormal as he/she has deviated from normal social norms. These societal beliefs act as the basis for the identification of abnormalities, which lead to the involved individual being subjected to further analysis by professionals in order to determine the degree of their abnormalities as well as the treatment expected. Additionally, some cultures highly discriminate against individuals, and hence, this demotivates individuals from seeking clinical help for mental disorders.

Clinical psychologists give an overall presumption on how culture issues, gender, and socio-economic groups are statistically referred. In this essence, this forms the parameter that determines how these factors help in diagnosing psychological disorders. In addition to these factors, several other factors, such as depression and anxiety in reference to mental health problems, are statistically included in defining normal human conditions. In regards to gender, it has been established that males are highly likely to not consult a doctor if suffering from mental and physical disorders, and hence, females, on the other hand, have a high statistical score. This indicates that, in terms of gender, females are diagnosed early with mental disorders.

From a social-cultural perspective, a social context defines normal and abnormal behaviour. In other words, the social norms and cultures form the family and community. Social values are historically associated with the creation and adaptation of abnormal behaviors. The sociocultural perspective attaches abnormal behavioral patterns of absurd feelings and thoughts to a society-cultural pattern, which impacts the psychological health of individuals within a social context.

Additionally, many factors in the community can cause abnormal behaviors as they play a significant role in an individual’s behaviors. Some society setting is characterised by societal pressure on its individuals as they have high demands of set standards of needs and desires. This, in turn, causes mental and physical pressure on the individual in the bit of changing or adopting a certain personality in order to align with society. This societal pressure causes depression, anxiety, and stress, which are associated with abnormal behaviors.

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