The Black Death, which occurred in the 14th century, killed approximately half the population. The scarcity of labor caused the poor to be unable to find work. This led to revolt and government repression, which improved the condition of poor people. The kings imposed new taxes on landowners, clergy, and merchants, but the taxpayers refused.
There was internal division in France, which led to 100 years of war with England, but France ended up winning due to the patriotism of the people led by Joan of Arc. There was a spread of power in England to raise enough money, but the Barons were unruly; hence, they led to the War of the Roses. The medieval Church became corrupt and out of touch with the people, making it resistant to change. During the Babylonian Captivity, the split in the College of Cardinals brought two popes, both with different allies. However, a third was elected, and both were deposed, but they never gave up their power. Martin V reaffirmed papal supremacy in 1414, but corruption, simony, and nepotism in the region increased significantly. The papacy was later turned over to the “cultivated gentlemen,” such as painters, scholars, and architects.
Who were the ‘New Monarchs’ that ruled in Europe during the second half of the fifteenth century, how did they justify their ambitions, and what effect did their ‘New Monarchies’ have on political, social, and religious developments?
The Tudor dynasty started with Henry VII, and it lasted from 1485 to 1603 in England. The civil issues that led to the War of the Roses were ended by Henry VII. He also imposed laws on the lords who had private armies. The king handled the disputes. It became popular, but it was later condemned as a means of despotism. He appeared to be unpleasant but was considered a good leader. The Valois line of rule was started by Louis XI in 1461 in France. Using war, inheritance, marriage, and intrigue, he was able to expand the borders past Paris. He developed the internal army that he used to subdue the nobles and suppress the brigands. He also imposed control on the clergy, and with the help of Pope Leo X, he rescinded a pragmatic sanction. By 1469, Spain was divided into two kingdoms. Ferdinand ruled Aragon, and Isabella ruled Castile. The country lacked judicial, political, and administrative institutions. Marriage was a key aspect of joining the kingdoms, but they still possessed two different rulers, and there was no sense of union. Both rulers brought compulsory religious conformity, and thus, they expelled all the Muslims and Jews (Bonney, 1991; Richardson, 2002).
What were the principal issues addressed by the Peace of Westphalia?
The choice of religion in Germany was based on the Peace of Westphalia and the renewal of the Peace of Augsburg. This also brought the addition of Calvinism alongside Lutheranism and Catholicism as an acceptable faith. The Catholics claimed the territories by means of churches in 1552 after being abandoned, which was the Protestants’ victory. Then, there was the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. The Swiss Cantons and the United Provinces were considered independent, while the Swiss were considered independent since the Dutch were not part of the Empire. Sweden and France became part of the initial Empire. The region of Germany was divided into 300 independent sovereign nations, which permitted them to negotiate external trade free from the rule of the empire. This was important in the elimination of political power. They became independent from the “Superior rule.” New laws, army recruitment, payment of taxes, declaration of war, and ratification of peace were not allowed without the consent of all state rulers. A third of Germany’s population was lost in the 30-year war, and much of the country was looted and wrecked. Therefore, Europe was considered a large group of sovereignties independent of one another, with free acts of state diplomacy.
Discuss the importance of the Italian Renaissance for the development of Western civilization, comparing and contrasting it to the Renaissance that took place in Europe north of the Alps.
The new way of thinking about the world was led by the Italian Renaissance. This involved every area of culture that was neither scientific nor theological but concerned moral and civic questions that asked what a man should do in reflection on matters of style, taste, personal character, property, education, and decorum. It was during the Renaissance in Italy that the first purely secular attitude appeared. All the towns in Italy were independent states, and some of them were led by local despots while others were individual republics. They grew through trade, and merchants created opportunities to increase commerce. Florence was run by the Medici family, which progressed from the wool trade to wealthy banking under the power of Lorenzo the Magnificent (Richardson, 2002).
Humanism came into existence, where man was not considered to be a frail creature but rather shaped the world and brought success to everything. In admiration of the classical styles and forms, the humanists demonstrated them in classical Latin. The advancement in schools brought the separation of students based on their skills and age, making an efficient educational system. The city-states did not join together, and thus war was common. Machiavelli’s attempt to convince the Italians to come together was considered cynical. Due to poor unity, Spain and Germany took Rome in 1527.
However, outside Italy, conditions were different since there were strong religious sentiments that deepened the understanding of Christian humanist studies, such as Hebrew, Latin, and Greek texts. Bankers controlled a larger amount of capital in Germany, thus making it an economic center. Science also advanced, with figures such as Johanna Muller, who had a mathematical conception of the universe, while astronomy advanced with Nicholas Copernicus. Mysticism illustrated that a human being’s soul could communicate with God directly. Thus, they didn’t need any sentiment, reason, or word, but they could not go against the Church since they were all seeking a deeper religion without the Church’s presence. Medieval thought was later ridiculed by Erasmus of Rotterdam. He had a proper understanding of the need for change, but it was through education and not through power. He wrote the new edition of the Old Testament in Latin and Greek with somewhat fewer mistakes. Christians were encouraged by him to make use of the New Testament so that they could improve their behavior.
During the second half of the 16th century, Spain, under the rule of Charles V, followed by his son Phillip II, was the most powerful kingdom in Europe militarily and economically, but by the early 1600s, it had been eclipsed by England and the Netherlands. Discuss the events that led to this situation, explaining how they were part of an international politico-religious struggle.
Phillip II inherited some of the provinces and towns during his time of Spanish rule. Some of the inherited towns and provinces included the Netherlands, Naples, Milan, Portugal, America, and Burgundy. He believed that the Spanish were the leaders of European Catholicism, and this made him a staunch Catholic. However, he could not gain the trust of other nations concerning religion. The provinces of the Netherlands and the other Low Countries went against Phillip II when 200 nobles from different provinces decided to found a league that would keep the influence of foreign Spain in check. They wanted the Spanish Inquisition withdrawn from the Netherlands, but their request was denied. This led to the destruction of 400 churches as they revolted, which made Phillip II send the Inquisition in. Many people were sentenced to death, and new taxes were levied while the nobles lost their estates. This brought unity among people of all classes against Spain (Pierson, 1999; Ruiz, 2001).
England also joined the war and allied with the Netherlands so that it could protect its interests. They became a wall of Protestants emerging against Spain all over Europe. In response to the English entry into the fight, Phillip II sent the Spanish Armada, which was destroyed in the English Channel. Later, in 1609, there was an agreement on the Twelve Years’ Truce, which separated the seven Northern provinces (Dutch) and ten Southern provinces (Spanish Netherlands). All the Protestants went to the north while the Catholics went to the south. The prosperity of Spain continued for half a century, but it declined politically and economically due to the death of Phillip II. They survived on shipments from the Indies as the unity of the Spanish kingdoms fell apart.
English confidence increased due to the outcomes of the struggle. Also, the English started developing unity among themselves. As time passed, Spain was losing a large portion of its population as it drove Muslims from the country. The number of aristocrats who believed that they were above the tasks that were required to be done also increased. Therefore, these are the factors that led to the fall of the Spanish kingdoms.
Bibliography
Bonney, R. (1991). The European Dynastic States. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Pierson, P. (1999). The History of Spain. London: Greenwood Press.
Richardson, G. (2002). Renaissance Monarchy. London: Oxford University Press.
Ruiz, T. F. (2001). Spanish Society. New York: the University of California at Los Angeles.
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