Academic Master

Education

A Theoretical Framework to Guide Vocabulary Instruction and to Learn in K-5 Classroom

Introduction

Vocabulary as a branch of the science of language in the school was not studied either in the pre-revolutionary period or in the English era, although work on the word (vocabulary) at different historical stages was given a large place. Vocabulary and phraseology have been taught in school since 1970. Their inclusion as separate sections in the school curriculum in the K-5 class increased the cognitive and practical orientation of the course, helped to increase the interest of students in the K-5 class as a subject, revived the extra-curricular work, and provided the conditions for holding classes in the K-5 classroom on vocabulary and phraseology (Lourenço, 2012).

For a relatively short period of study of the above sections, a new field of methods of teaching the K-5 class has the developed-a technique of vocabulary and phraseology. This technique formulated its goals and defined the content of instruction, as well as methods for studying lexicological and phraseological concepts and methods for the formation of language and language lexical and phraseological skills among students. Many methodologists contributed to the creation of a new field of methods of teaching the K-5 class, as well as teachers whose articles and development of lessons in vocabulary and phraseology were published in the journal “K-5 class at school” in various collections (John-Steiner, 2007).

In the middle of the 19th century, the work on lexical concepts proclaimed “the principle of a comprehensive study of the language. It was first introduced into the school course of the American (native) language, the study of individual lexical concepts: on mastics (studying the initial meaning of words, the figurative meaning of words, synonymy); archaisms; borrowed words (“alien elements”); dialectal words (“provincialisms”) (Lourenço, 2012).

The lack of vocabulary in the K-5 classroom in the past is also because the methodologists and teachers underestimated its great importance for the formation of both verbal and spelling skills, as they saw the basis for the development of skills and skills only in grammar. Expanding the content of teaching American in K-5 classroom due to the inclusion of vocabulary and phraseology caused the emergence of a new field of methods of teaching the K-5 class – the technique of vocabulary and phraseology, which became an element of the structure of our science, along with its previously established fields (Lourenço, 2012).

The technique of vocabulary and phraseology has now acquired the rights of an independent field of methods of teaching the K-5 class, not only because it has a direct correlation with sections of the school curriculum – vocabulary and phraseology. It has its goals and its subject of education, its content, its methods of teaching, and its methods of scientific research of the process of mastering lexicological and phraseological concepts and mastering the educational and linguistic lexicological and phraseological skills (Wells, 1994).

Fundamentals of the methods of studying vocabulary in K-5

Linguodidactic bases of studying of lexicon at school

Vocabulary, on the one hand, is a section of the science of language, studying its vocabulary system, on the other – the totality of all the words of the language. Vocabulary (lexicology) as a branch of the science of language in the methodology of the K-5 class corresponds to the technique of vocabulary, and vocabulary as the aggregate of all words of the language (vocabulary) – the technique of enriching the vocabulary of students (John-Steiner, 2007).

The practical meaning of the lexicon lies in the fact that its study reveals the word as an element of the vocabulary system, positively influences the students’ awareness of the specifics of the remaining units of the language, influences the acquisition of spelling skills (Wells, 1994). These are the basis for enriching the vocabulary of students and the basis for work on style. The study of vocabulary develops the attention of schoolchildren to the meanings and uses of words, educates them in the need to choose a suitable word for the expression of a particular thought in their own speech (Cole & Wertsch, 1996). It allows us to justify the system of exercises on the expressive and visual means of the studied artistic works in literature lessons forms the ability to use an explanatory dictionary.

Goals, tasks of teaching vocabulary in K-5

Common problems in the methodology of vocabulary and phraseology are those of the solution of extensions to all languages ​​in the field of language education in the K-5 class (the task of and role of learning vocabulary in school, the linguistic basis of the school course of vocabulary and phraseology, the principles of selection of the vocabulary and phraseology, the content of the vocabulary and phraseology of the vocabulary and phraseology, the content of work on vocabulary and phraseology, the lexical and phraseological concepts the study of nonleptic phenomena, the specifics of verifying work on vocabulary and phraseology in controlling the knowledge and skills of students in K-5 classroom (Cole & Wertsch, 1996).

The reliance on the extra-linguistic principle of the study of lexical phenomena: In accordance with the nature of the lexical concepts, for example, in paragraphs on antonyms and homonyms; the second group includes drawings accompanied by signatures, for example, in paragraphs on synonyms, obsolete words, and borrowed words (Blachowicz, Fisher, Ogle & Watts-Taffe, 2006). Each of these groups of figures is used differently in explaining the essence of the lexical concept. When analyzing the first group of drawings, students come up from the image of objects to the word, and when analyzing the second group of pictures (Lindblom & Ziemke, 2002).

Lexicological categories, in which the studied lexical phenomena are combined, are closely connected with grammar. Thus, not all words having different meanings with the unity of speech and writing are homonyms, but only those words that belong to the same part of speech. For example, a bow (vegetable) and a bow (weapon) are homonyms, because they are both nouns, but the words stove (action) and oven (object) is not homonyms, because they belong to different parts of speech.

Comparison of the lexical and grammatical meanings of the words is of great importance, in particular, in the derivation of the law. The lexicon-grammatical principle is especially necessary for working with words. The word, enter into different semantic links with other words, forms a lexical paradigm to clarify the linguistic essence of this or that member of this paradigm.

This system should be used in the study of polysemantic words and homonyms, polysemantic words and antonyms, synonyms and antonyms, synonyms and related words.

Words in the language, the nominative (naming) function and function of expressing feelings, moods, and personal relationships (Blachowicz, Fisher, Ogle & Watts-Taffe, 2006). Some words are freely used in all styles of speech. Other words have a predominant use in any one style of speech, which often depends on which of the functions of the communication. Therefore, lexical meanings must be considered taking into account their stylistic stratification; guided by a functional principle (Lindblom & Ziemke, 2002). This will ensure in the future vocabulary preparation for the presentation and writing of a given style of speech.

The emotional stylistic coloring of words in school is not specifically studied, but in 5 classes, when familiarizing themselves with lexical phenomena, the sphere of their use is indicated, which creates conditions for linking work on vocabulary with stylistics. In textbooks, this principle is implemented in the form of information on litters in words in the explanatory dictionary and the form of exercises for exercises (Learning Theories 2011).

 Types of lexical exercises

As a result of studying the vocabulary, the following skills should be formed in schoolchildren:

  • To distinguish the lexical meaning in the word and its phraseology from the grammatical meaning;
  • To interpret the lexical meanings of words and phrological units;
  • determine the meaning of the word in context;
  • Use different dictionaries.

Lexical and phraseological skills are formed with the help of special exercises:

  • Common in the study of each lexical concept,
  • Private, specific for each lexical phenomenon
  • Lexical exercises are exercises aimed at understanding the essence of lexical skills.

Let us dwell on the general exercises:

  • Finding the phenomenon under study among words according to the pattern and without it
  • To perform this exercise, students must know the distinctive features of each of the lexical phenomena.
  • Selection of examples illustrating the phenomenon under study (from memory or any printed sources);
  • Grouping of studied lexical phenomena (including the compilation of tables aimed at grouping these phenomena);
  • Finding and correcting lexical errors. The material for this exercise is groupings of lexical phenomena composed not on the same basis, or groupings compiled by the students themselves with errors.
  • Lexical analysis: Its content and sequence are determined

A lexical analysis as an exercise consists in characterizing a word from the specific features of the lexical concepts studied. This exercise can only be done with the support of dictionaries.

  1. Determining the role of the phenomenon in the text
  2. Use in the speech of the phenomenon studied for a specific purpose.

The exercises specific for each lexical phenomenon include:

  • Finding words in the dictionary article of the explanatory dictionary (Learning Theories 2011). This exercise reinforces the knowledge of students about the structure of the dictionary entry.
  • Finding words in dictionaries for one or another litter. This exercise teaches students to apply knowledge about certain properties of the word, to find information about the conditions for using or not using the word, depending on these properties.
  • Compiling the dictionary entry of a familiar word, such an exercise requires the synthesis of the student’s knowledge of the word, the structure of the dictionary entry (Gillam, Olszewski, Fargo & Gillam, 2014).
  • The solution of crossword puzzles
  • Performing oral and written works on the formation of speech skills

The tasks of studying lexical phenomena in the school course of vocabulary are not the same. Therefore the set of types of lexical exercises, and also the character to them, is different. It depends on the specifics of the lexical phenomenon being studied and the lexical ability that is being formed (Learning Theories 2011).

Summary

Vocabulary and phraseology have been taught in school since 1970. For a relatively short period of study of these sections, a new area of ​​the methodology of teaching the K-5 class – a technique of vocabulary and phraseology. Many methodologists contributed to the creation of a new field of methods of teaching the K-5 class, as well as teachers whose articles and development of lessons in vocabulary and phraseology were published in the journal “K-5 class at school” in various collections (Gillam, Olszewski, Fargo & Gillam, 2014). Work on lexical concepts in the middle of the XIX century was recommended by Vygotsky, who proclaimed the principle of the comprehensive study of the language. As a section of the science of the language of lexicon was included only in the draft programs and his long absence in the school course of the K-5 class is due primarily to the fact that lexicology is a branch of the science of language (Learning Theories 2011). Studying the word as one of the main linguistic units, began to take shape in our country only in the 30s of the 20th century after the publication of ” The course of the American literary language Vocabulary” was first published, revealing the lexicological and phraseological categories of the American literary language (Gillam, Olszewski, Fargo & Gillam, 2014).

In the 1960s and 1970s, when the foundations of the lexicology of the modern American literary language were created, the methodology was able to develop content and techniques for studying vocabulary as a branch of the science of languages ​​at school. In these years, Vygotsky conducted methodological research aimed at clarifying the role of vocabulary in the formation of skills and abilities of students in K-5 classroom-7, the content of the work, principles, and methods of study (Connor et al., 2014).

The technique of vocabulary and phraseology has now acquired the rights of an independent field of methods of teaching the K-5 class. It has its goals and its subject of education, its content, its methods of teaching, and its methods of scientific research of the process of mastering lexicological and phraseological concepts and mastering the educational and linguistic lexicological and phraseological skills (Nicolopoulou, 1993).

Vocabulary, on the one hand, is a section of the science of language, studying its vocabulary system, on the other – the totality of all the words of the language. Vocabulary (lexicology) as a branch of the science of language in the methodology of the K-5 class corresponds to the technique of vocabulary, and vocabulary as the aggregate of all words of the language (vocabulary) – the technique of enriching the vocabulary of students.

Work on vocabulary at school has a huge both general educational and practical importance. Through the interest in vocabulary, interest in the K-5 class as a whole also develops.

In the school course of the K-5 class, vocabulary is studied as a special section of the science of language and as a lexical aspect (i.e., taking into account the interlayer linkages of vocabulary) learning grammar. Lexicology has its object of study – a word that is viewed from different sides, and its system of concepts (Nicolopoulou, 1993).

In school, lexicology is studied in the narrow sense of the term, i.e., as a dictionary system of language. However, the school course of vocabulary includes some information about stable combinations and dictionaries (explanatory dictionary, the dictionary of foreign words, phraseological dictionary and certain concepts of historical lexicology: obsolete and new words.) (Weisner, 1987).

With a word as a unit of language, students deal with the first steps of schooling and throughout studying K-5 class and literature, because the word is a building material for both a sentence and a coherent statement (Ford-Connors & Paratore, 2015). By this MT Baranov allocates four stages of work on lexical phenomena in the K-5 classroom course:

  1. propaedeutic (primary classes);
  2. systematic (K-5 classroom);
  3. Aspect study of vocabulary (K-5 classroom);
  4. Functional-stylistic (K-5 classroom).

Vocabulary as a section of the science of language in the program for K-5 classroom-7 is placed after phonetics before grammar.

All the lexical phenomena are informed of the following information: the definition of the concept, the purpose of using the phenomenon in speech, the way the phenomenon is reflected in the explanatory dictionary, and the use in artistic works (Connor et al., 2014).

Along with the study of vocabulary as a special section of the science of language in special lessons provided by the program, work on vocabulary continues throughout the course of the K-5 class in K-5 classroom (grammar lessons, as well as in classes on stylistics and development of speech), where knowledge students in the vocabulary are generalized, repeated and deepened. Vocabulary, being an independent section of the school course of the K-5 class, is directly related to its other sections, and in particular to grammar. Vygotsky drew attention to this connection (Ford-Connors & Paratore, 2015).

A great place is found in vocabulary and the development of speech. At the same time, it is necessary to work to prevent lexical errors in the process of vocabulary preparation for presentations and essays, and after their verification – over the errors that have appeared.

Therefore, by studying the vocabulary, students are introduced to the system of concepts at the level of vocabulary, before them are revealed the existing links between vocabulary and grammar, vocabulary and spelling, vocabulary and stylistics, which creates the necessary prerequisites for studying different sections of the school course on a lexical basis, for purposeful enrichment of the vocabulary students. Also, familiarity with vocabulary reveals to the student’s inexhaustible riches of the K-5 class, its vocabulary, educates in them a conscious attitude to the meaning of the word, its choice and use in speech, depending on the topic and the main idea of ​​the utterance. Between the lexical concepts there is much in common, therefore, in the methodology for their study, general principles are outlined, and similar types of exercises and similar ways of systematizing the material traced are used for fixing (Weisner, 1987).

Chapter 2: Methodology of studying vocabulary at school

Analysis of programs and textbooks on the K-5 class for K-5 classroom

The structure of the K-5 classroom course is characterized by continuity from class to class and the sequence of the location of the teaching material. The program of the K-5 class at each concentration represents certain completeness, i.e., in the next section, in an expanded form; those topics that have already been studied earlier are considered. However, the problem of continuity between primary and secondary schools is not sufficiently solved (Kennedy, Deshler & Lloyd,2015).

The first stable programs are built according to a linear principle, i.e., first, the units of the lowest level are studied – sounds, then higher – morphemes, words, then higher – sentence and text. This construction of the program has revealed some shortcomings (the same topic has been studied for a very long time). The educational material is located in a linear-step aspect so that it is possible to return to what has already been studied. In the linear-graded arrangement of the material, there are positive moments: simple, easy to perceive, memorizing the students of the topic being studied at the first stage, more complex ones – at the second or third stage (Ford-Connors & Paratore, 2015). However, some difficult topics (participle, adverb, service parts of speech) are studied only once.

Analysis of the program on the K-5 class to textbooks for K-5 classroom

The program opens an explanatory note, which defines the content and sequence of the study of the K-5 class.

The program contains:

  • Selected in accordance with the tasks of teaching a system of concepts from the field of phonetics, vocabulary and phraseology, morphology, syntax and stylistics of the American literary language, as well as some information about the role of language in society, language as a developing phenomenon; speech concepts, on the basis of which the work is being built to develop coherent speech of students, – the formation of communicative skills and skills; information on the basic norms of the American literary language;
  • Information about the schedule, spelling, and punctuation; list of types of programs and names of punctuation rules.

The program is built taking into account the principles of systematic, scientific and accessible, as well as continuity and prospects between different sections of the course. The material of the K-5 classroom course is divided into classes as follows: in the 5th, 6th and 7th grades, phonetics and graphics, vocabulary and phraseology, morphology and word formation, morphology, and syntax are studied. The systematic course of syntax is the subject of study in the 8th and 9th grades. The educational material is based on the age opportunities of the students. By this, the study of some topics of the course is conducted in two stages. For example, the topics “Vocabulary”, “Word formation”, “Noun”, “Adjective”, “Verb” are given in K-5 classroom and 6, information on stylistics 5 (Kennedy, Deshler & Lloyd,2015).

Work on the culture of speech is dispersed in all classes.

The program allocates explicitly hours for the development of coherent speech of students – one-fifth of the entire study time specified for this class. Topics on the development of speech – speech concepts and types of work on the text – are proportionally distributed among the grammatical material. This ensures the uniformity of speech, the conditions for its organization.

At the end of each class’s program, a special section lists the basic skills that are formed in the process of studying information about language and speech (Wells, 1994).

One of the main directions of teaching the K-5 class in this program is the organization of work on mastering students with strong and informed knowledge (Kearsley, 1994).

In vocabulary and lexical work, special techniques are used: the thematic association of words into special lexical groups, the compilation of word combinations and sentences with these words, their inclusion in independent works, the compilation of nests with one-root words, the maintenance of individual vocabularies, an appeal to the etymology of words, work with orthographic and explanatory dictionaries and the carrying out of dictionary dictations. These and other types of exercises contribute to the assimilation of vocabulary minima (they are placed in the annexes to textbooks called “Write correctly”), necessary for a literate person.

The study of each section, each topic should contribute to the development of logical thinking and coherent speech of students. The development of the speech of pupils in the K-5 class classes presupposes the improvement of all types of speech activity (speaking, listening (listening), reading and writing) and is carried out in three directions that make up a single whole:

  1. Mastering the norms of the American literary language: literary pronunciation, the formation of word forms, the construction of word combinations and sentences, the use of words by their lexical meaning and style;
  2. The vocabulary of schoolchildren is replenished when studying all academic subjects, but a particular role in this belongs to the K-5 class and literature. Systematic vocabulary work provides enrichment of the vocabulary in the lessons of the K-5 class. One of the most critical requirements for vocabulary work is the development in students of the ability to see unfamiliar words, to bring up the habit of applying for their explanation to the teacher and to use dictionaries-directories (Kearsley, 1994).

Enrichment of the grammatical structure of children’s speech is achieved by constant work on the synonymy of word combinations and sentences, observations on the form, meaning and features of the use of linguistic units (Wells, 1994).

  1. The development of coherent speech presupposes work on the content, construction, language formulation of the utterance, which is carried out during the performance of special exercises and in the preparation of statements and essays (Weisner, 1987).

An obligatory component of work on the development of speech is the prevention and elimination of various language errors. Work on the development of speech includes the formation of skills of expressive reading.

The closest and organic links of the K-5 class as an object are realized with literature. In the lessons of the K-5 classroom, program artworks are widely used to illustrate scientific facts, observations of the use of individual words, grammatical forms, various syntactic constructions, means of communication of sentences and parts of the text, and certain types of speech (narrative, description, and reasoning).

The same linguistic concepts take place in the course of the studied foreign languages ​​(subject, predicate, sentence member, etc.). Related concepts are contained in the course of literature, fine arts; at the lessons of history, students get acquainted with archaisms, historicisms, borrowed words, widely introduce them into speech; when studying geography – with population issues and language groups; at the lessons of biology – with questions of thought and speech; when practicing music – with sound, with timbre, intonation (Wells, 1994).

Inter-subject communication in the educational process provides a better understanding of the students of the material studied and a higher level of proficiency in the K-5 class.

However, these topics do not exhaust the study of vocabulary in the 5th grade. Other sections expand the knowledge of students and vocabulary. When studying the section “Morphology,” students develop the ability to use nouns-synonyms, adjectives-synonyms, verbs-synonyms to express their thoughts more accurately and to eliminate the unjustified repetition of the same words.

Conclusion

The structure of the K-5 classroom course is characterized by continuity from class to class and the sequence of the location of the teaching material. However, the problem of continuity between primary and secondary schools has not been sufficiently solved.

The first stable programs are built on a linear principle. This construction of the program has revealed some shortcomings (the same topic has been studied for a very long time). In the linear-graded arrangement of the material, there are simple, easy to perceive, memorizing the students of the topic. However, some difficult topics (participle, adverb, service parts of speech) are studied only once. This work is carried out in the lessons of vocabulary in both five classes as the study of lexical concepts. In the study of lexical concepts, an explanatory dictionary is used to familiarize pupils with the ways to reflect in the dictionary. Information and enrich the vocabulary. This information is communicated to the students gradually, as they become familiar with the new lexical concept. Work with an explanatory dictionary is necessary for the student and in the process of learning (in lessons in all subjects), and at the end of the school for self-acquisition, seeking new knowledge about the word.

To realize the speech aspect of the study of vocabulary, it is necessary to pay. To this end, many concepts of the section “Lexicon” are studied in connection with the concept of “text,” the introduction of which in the program creates linguistic bases and for work on the development of coherent speech. Performing exercises on vocabulary, schoolchildren will deepen their knowledge of both the main features of the text, the lexical means of expressing interphrasal links.

Teaching vocabulary for the development of speech is not only a constant work on enriching the vocabulary of students, but also increasing attention to the issues of word compatibility. The choice of words, the dependence of the standards of compatibility on the semantic, expressive and emotional properties of the word, its functional-stylistic affiliation, and these questions can be considered in the process of performing various exercises.

It should be noted that, in connection with the introduction of a methodologically significant concept of linguistic competence in the school curriculum, there is a need for a methodology for its formation among schoolchildren, which was justified by Academician Vygotsky and other researchers. At present, the concept of linguistic competence has not yet received a single definition. Students should be familiarized with the information about linguistics and its development, talk about the life and work of American.

Because of work on vocabulary, students must acquire a certain level of knowledge and skills by the cognitive and practical tasks of studying this section of the science of language. To monitor the mastery of knowledge and ability of skills, it is necessary to use both oral and written forms of verification. The study of vocabulary is at the same time accompanied by recurrent repetition and consolidation of the previously published material on phonetics, grammar, and spelling, as well as work on developing the speech of schoolchildren.

The section “Vocabulary” has a special role in the development of students’ feelings of language, in the formation of their skills to use the word about its semantic, stylistic qualities, the laws of its compatibility. Assimilation of some theoretical information about a word as a lexical unit should become the basis of work on enriching the vocabulary of students, to promote the formation of skills in the field of connected speech.

References

Hindman, A. H., & Wasik, B. A. (2013). Vocabulary learning in Head Start: Nature and extent of classroom instruction and its contributions to children’s learning. Journal of School Psychology, 51(3), 387–405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2013.01.001

Gillam, S. L., Olszewski, A., Fargo, J., & Gillam, R. B. (2014). Classroom-Based Narrative and Vocabulary Instruction: Results of an Early-Stage, Nonrandomized Comparison Study. Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 45(3), 204. https://doi.org/10.1044/2014_LSHSS-13-0008

BLACHOWICZ, C. L. Z., FISHER, P. J. L., OGLE, D., & WATTS-TAFFE, S. (2006). Vocabulary: Questions from the classroom. Reading Research Quarterly, 41(4), 524–539. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.41.4.5

Kennedy, M. J., Deshler, D. D., & Lloyd, J. W. (2015). Effects of Multimedia Vocabulary Instruction on Adolescents With Learning Disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 48(1), 22–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219413487406

Ford-Connors, E., & Paratore, J. R. (2015). Vocabulary Instruction in Fifth Grade and Beyond: Sources of Word Learning and Productive Contexts for Development. Review of Educational Research, 85(1), 50–91. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654314540943

Connor, C. M. D., Spencer, M., Day, S. L., Giuliani, S., Ingebrand, S. W., McLean, L., & Morrison, F. J. (2014). Capturing the complexity: Content, type, and amount of instruction and quality of the classroom learning environment synergistically predict third graders’ vocabulary and reading comprehension outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(3), 762–778. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035921

Kearsley, G. (1994). Social Development Theory (L. Vygotsky). Retrieved from http://tip.psychology.org/vygotsky.html

Learning Theories. (2011). Social Development Theory ( Vygotsky ). Retrieved from http://www.learning-theories.com/vygotskys-social-learning-theory.html

Wells, G. (1994). The complementary contributions of Halliday and Vygotsky to a “language-based theory of learning.” Linguistics and Education, 6(1), 41–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/0898-5898(94)90021-3

Nicolopoulou, A. (1993). Play, cognitive development, and the social world: Piaget, Vygotsky, and beyond. Human Development, 36(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1159/000277285

Cole, M., & Wertsch, J. V. (1996). Beyond the Individual-Social Antinomy in Discussions of Piaget and Vygotsky. Human Development, 39(5), 250–256. https://doi.org/10.1159/000278475

Lindblom, J., & Ziemke, T. (2002). Social Situatedness:  Vygotsky and Beyond. Knowledge Creation Diffusion Utilization, 94, 71–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/10597123030112002

Weisner, T. S. (1987). : Vygotsky and the Social Formation of Mind. James V. Wertsch. American Anthropologist, 89(2), 479–480. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1987.89.2.02a00500

John-Steiner, V. P. (2007). Vygotsky on thinking and speaking. In The Cambridge Companion to Vygotsky (pp. 136–152). https://doi.org/10.1017/CCOL0521831040.006

Lourenço, O. (2012). Piaget and Vygotsky: Many resemblances, and a crucial difference. New Ideas in Psychology, 30(3), 281–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2011.12.006

SEARCH

Top-right-side-AD-min
WHY US?

Calculate Your Order




Standard price

$310

SAVE ON YOUR FIRST ORDER!

$263.5

YOU MAY ALSO LIKE

Pop-up Message