| Citation | Conceptual framework | Design/ Method | Sample/ Setting | Major variables | Measurements | Data analysis | Findings | Appraisal |
| Sonnenberg, F. A., Burkman, R. T., Hagerty, C. G., Speroff, L., & Speroff, T. (2004). Costs and net health effects of contraceptive methods. Contraception, 69(6), 447-459. | Most families consider the use of contraceptive methods as an expensive treatment. However, the cost of using contraceptive methods is less than the no-use contraceptive methods. | The design of the research is analysis based. | Thirteen contraceptive methods in women of age 15 to 50 years were compared with the case of no use of the contraceptive method. | Contraceptive methods are a primary independent variable in this study.
The cost of contraceptive methods is the dependent variable. |
A nominal scale is used for measuring cost using quality-adjusted
life-years |
Sensitivity analysis and
cost analysis are calculated using the Markov model |
The saving cost of contraceptive methods over two years ranged from $5907/woman to$9936 for sterilization and vasectomy. | This study does not use any statistical methods rather it uses cost and base analysis to interpret the results. |
| Johnson, D., Juras, R., Riley, P., Chatterji, M., Sloane, P., Choi, S. K., & Johns, B. (2017). A randomized controlled trial of the impact of a family planning mHealth service on knowledge and use of contraception. Contraception, 95(1), 90-97. | The study showed the association of oral contraceptives with lipid metabolism and normal metabolism. | Systematic review | PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Science Direct databases from (2001 – 2015) were searched. | Dependent –
Oral metabolic profiles of polycystic ovary syndrome patients
The Independent variable is the contraceptive, containing cyproterone acetate. |
Data from all studies is collected using databases searches and then it is analyzed using fixed and random effect models. | Fixed and random effect models | Oral contraceptive worsened the lipid profiles. HDL-C and TG were elevated.
No impact on the metabolic profile of individual was seen. |
The article demonstrated that oral contraception brings changes in lipid profiles of patients with PCOS.
|
| Citation | Conceptual framework | Design/ Method | Sample/ Setting | Major variables | Measurements | Data analysis | Findings | Appraisal |
| Cleland, J., Conde-Agudelo, A., Peterson, H., Ross, J., & Tsui, A. (2012). Contraception and health. The Lancet, 380(9837), 149-156. | Contraceptive methods are used by families worldwide. They are the best way to control childbirth, and unintended pregnancies. Over the past years, it has averted many deaths and morbidities. | The purpose of this study was to conduct a systematic review of the use of contraceptives and report the cases of fatalities and mortalities regarding their use. | Different databases like Medline, Embase, and Popline, the Cumulative Index to
Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), and Literatura Latino-Americana e do Caribe em Ciências da Saúde (LILACS) are searched for the cases of contraception and the number of deaths related to them. |
In this study, contraceptive methods are the independent variable. The use of contraceptive methods has caused many fatalities worldwide.
Death and health are dependent variables in this study. Deaths are averted due to the use of contraception. |
There are no proper measurements used in this study. Data about contraception and deaths is collected from many countries of the world using databases. | This study does not use any statistical software or method to extract and analyze data. It is a systematic review in which data from previous studies is gathered and then analyzed and interpreted using a graphical representation. | The use of contraception averted over 250000 maternal deaths in 2008 worldwide. It caused a 75% decline in fertility. 30% of deaths could be avoided each year by using contraceptives. | It’s a very useful and informative study. It has concluded that the increased use of contraception reduces the death rates of mother and pose low risks to the health and psychology of a mother. |
| Marchbanks, P. A., McDonald, J. A., Wilson, H. G., Folger, S. G., Mandel, M. G., Daling, J. R., … & Norman, S. A. (2002). Oral contraceptives and the risk of breast cancer. New England Journal of Medicine, 346(26), 2025-2032. | The incidence of breast cancer is growing at alarming rate. Many risks factors have been identified so far. Oral contraception has also been recently reported to be a risk factor for breast cancer. | A Population-based,
control study is carried out in this study in which 54 epidemiological cases were selected from past 25 years. |
Out of 5982, 4575 women having breast cancer of age 35 to 64 were selected for interviewing while
4682 controls out of 5956 were selected. |
Independent variable oral contraceptives, age, race, etc.
The dependent variable is a breast cancer disease |
The statistical methods and standard questionnaires were used for measuring variables. | After collecting data on variables under study like race, statistical methods were applied to them. The statistical method implied in this study is the conditional logistic regression that calculates the relative risk of breast cancer. Conditional | The risk
of breast cancer among women who are using oral contraceptives are high as compared to those who Are not using
1.24 (95 percent confidence interval, 1.15 to 1.33 |
The current study is worthwhile. It has grabbed the attention of the use of oral contraception and the risk of developing breast cancer. |
| Citation | Conceptual framework | Design/ Method | Sample/ Setting | Major variables | Measurements | Data analysis | Findings | Appraisal |
| Zimmerman, Y., Eijkemans, M. J. C., Coelingh Bennink, H. J. T., Blankenstein, M. A., & Fauser, B. C. J. M. (2014). The effect of combined oral contraception on testosterone levels in healthy women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Human reproduction update, 20(1), 76-105. | The use of combined oral contraceptives is beneficial in regulating hormones. The high level of androgens imparts negative characteristics in a female body. | The study design consists of a systematic review and
meta-analysis using MEDLINE, EMBASE and the Cochrane Central Register of Clinical Trials |
151 records were identified from systematic reviews
1495 healthy young women were scrutinized in the meta-analysis. |
The Independent variable is Combined oral contraceptives
The dependent variable is testosterone, sex hormone-binding globulin because of the level of hormones changes because of contraception. |
A review of 42 studies was selected to measure the effect of combined oral contraceptives on female hormones.
Descriptive statistics is used for data analysis and interpretation. |
I2 statistic per Cochrane guideline (p=0.05)
The study uses a cardinal scale to measure the level of hormones.
Mean difference, standard deviation, Standard error curve, the confidence interval is different statistical and nominal methods employed in this study to analyze data.
|
Testosterone level decreased significantly during combined oral contraceptive
95% confidence interval, −0.49 nmol/l (−0.55, −0.42); P < 0.001]
The sex hormone binding globulin was elevated- Mean difference (95% CI) 99.08 nmol/l (86.43, 111.73); P < 0.001
|
Deep understanding and awareness of combined oral contraceptives are needed to use these methods to increase female hormones and decrease androgens. |
References
Cleland, J., Conde-Agudelo, A., Peterson, H., Ross, J., & Tsui, A. (2012). Contraception and health. The Lancet, 380(9837), 149-156.
Johnson, D., Juras, R., Riley, P., Chatterji, M., Sloane, P., Choi, S. K., & Johns, B. (2017). A randomized controlled trial of the impact of a family planning mHealth service on knowledge and use of contraception. Contraception, 95(1), 90-97.
Marchbanks, P. A., McDonald, J. A., Wilson, H. G., Folger, S. G., Mandel, M. G., Daling, J. R., … & Norman, S. A. (2002). Oral contraceptives and the risk of breast cancer. New England Journal of Medicine, 346(26), 2025-2032.
Sonnenberg, F. A., Burkman, R. T., Hagerty, C. G., Speroff, L., & Speroff, T. (2004). Costs and net health effects of contraceptive methods. Contraception, 69(6), 447-459.
Zimmerman, Y., Eijkemans, M. J. C., Coelingh Bennink, H. J. T., Blankenstein, M. A., & Fauser, B. C. J. M. (2014). The effect of combined oral contraception on testosterone levels in healthy women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Human reproduction update, 20(1), 76-105.
