The cardiac conduction system comprises a specialised network of cells located in the heart which produce and spread electrical signals through the heart to facilitate contraction. In other words, the pumping process of the heart is regulated by the cardiac conduction (Mendelsohn and Karas, 2008). On the other hand, the cardiac cycle refers to series of events which take place when the heart beats. The cardiac cycle is driven by the force of cardiac conduction which comprises of an electrical system whose role is to power the cardiovascular system and the cardiac cycle. The cardiac cycle encompasses two phases; the systole and the diastole phase. In the diastole phase, contraction of the ventricle occurs, and blood is pumped out to the arteries from the heart. In the diastole phase, relaxation of ventricles occurs, and blood is filled in the heart.
The heart comprises of two specialised cells which trigger the conduction of the heart. Heart conduction involves depolarisation and repolarisation which are electrical sequences and referred as inherent rhythmicity. Sinoatrial node produces the electrical signal and spreads to the ventricular muscle through particular conducting pathways. The conducting pathways include the intermodal pathways, the atrioventricular node, the atria fibres, the bundle of His, the left and the right bundle branches when the depolarisation electrical signal reaches the contractile cell, contraction takes place (Lepeschkin 1950, p280). On the other hand, when the repolarisation signal spreads to the myocardial cells, relaxation occurs. In his essence, the electrical signals lead to the mechanical pumping action of the heart.
Each electrical and mechanical cycle is initiated by the SA node which acts as the normal heart pacemaker. After the depolarisation of the SA node, electrical stimulus extends through the atrial muscle, triggering the contraction of the muscle. Therefore, the depolarisation of the SA node is accompanied by the contraction of the atrial. Additionally, The SA node extends to the AV node through the internodal fibres. However, the depolarisation wave does not extend to the ventricles right away due to the presence of a non-conducting tissue which separates the atria from the ventricles (Mitchell, Kaufman and Iwamoto, 2014). The electrical signal stuck in the AV node for about 0.20 seconds after the contraction of the atria, eventually, the signal is spread to the ventricles through the bundle of His, left and right bundle branches and then to the Purkinje fibres. The Purkinje fibres then transmit the electrical signals to the ventricular muscles directly, causing the ventricles to contract (ventricular systole). The SA node repolarisation is also transmitted via the atria and then the ventricles, triggering the relaxation phase (ventricular diastole). Even though the heart creates its beat, the physiological foundation of the heart rate and the contraction strength is generated from the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions located within the nervous system (Boer et al. 1985, p150).
The sympathetic system performs as an accelerator, it speeds up and increases to contraction force of the heart. When more oxygen is needed in the body for instance during exercise or in the case of a drop in the blood pressure, the sympathetic input increases, leading a faster heart rate and increase in the contraction strength. Sympathetic influence fastens during inhalation. On the other hand, the parasympathetic input acts as a break; it slows down the heart. During relaxation, the parasympathetic inputs take full control, and the rate of heartbeat, in turn, slows down. The parasympathetic influence increases during the process of exhalation as the heart muscles relax.
Generally, the conducting pathway integrates together with the cardiac cycle processes to facilitate movement of blood throughout the body. The conducting system initiates a normal cardiac cycle as well as the contraction of the cardiac chambers through which blood and various electrical impulses are transmitted throughout the body. Ultimately, for an effective blood pumping process and the pulmonary and systemic circulations to take place effectively and in synchrony, the events in the cardiac cycle must be coordinated with the heart’s conducting system.
Task 2: Differences and similarities between arteries, veins and capillaries
Structural differences
To begin with, arteries have thicker and muscular. The thickness of the walls helps the arteries to withstand high pressure. The masculine walls help in vasoconstriction and vasodilation as well as ineffective regulation of blood pressure. Veins have thin and non-muscular walls. They are structurally thin blood vessels to allow the surrounding muscles to press against them and aid in pushing blood towards the heart (Uddman, 2017, p. 170). They lack masculine walls as blood in them flows in low pressure. On the other hand, capillaries have a one cell layer thick wall which enables easy diffusion of substances in and out of the capillaries. They are the smallest blood vessels.
Additionally, veins have valves which prevent backflow of blood as blood in them flows under low pressure. Arteries do not have valves as blood in the flow under a high pressure hence there no chances of backflow of blood. Capillaries are also valve-less.
Arteries have a thick outer layer made up of collagen and elastic fibres which aid in preventing bulges and leakages, while capillaries have pores within their wall which allow for the leakage of plasma fluid which is essential in transporting body substances. On the other hand, veins have a thin layer made up of few elastic fibres for easy transportation of blood.
Functional Differences
Arteries move oxygenated blood away from the heart to other body organs while Veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. On the other hand, capillaries transport blood away from the body and also allow the exchange of carbon dioxide, oxygen, nutrients and waste products in the body. They also serve as a link between veins and arteries.
Similarities
Arteries, veins and capillaries all carry blood. All blood vessels generally transport blood. Like veins, arteries comprise three layers; an inner layer made up of epithelial cells, an outer layer of tissue and a layer of muscles between them. In distributing blood and nutrients, all the three vessels supplement each other. Capillaries connect arteries to veins and hence allowing the exchange of products between them.
Task 3;
The motorcyclist suffered from haemorrhage shock following the occurrence of the accident. Generally, haemorrhage shock refers to a life-threatening condition which results from excessive loss of blood and body fluids. The severe loss of fluid affects the normal functioning of the body in that; the heart cannot transfer the necessary amount of blood around the body. This, in turn, poses a life-threatening condition for the patient and if not quickly corrected could lead to death (Lewis, 2009). The severe blood loss from the body can results from bleeding wounds and cuts, bleeding of the digestive tract, significant vaginal bleeding as well as internal bleeding- just to mention a few. This type of shock is more common to young children, old people and people involved in severe accidents it also causes many body organs such as kidneys to stop functioning effectively. The major Symptoms of haemorrhage shock include but not limited to –low blood pressure, unconsciousness, rapid pulse rate, body weakness, minimal urine output and a decrease in the overall body temperature.
In addition to the actual blood loss, severe of body fluids transpires to the reduction in the volume of blood which in turn causes nausea, dizziness, increased sweating, excessive vomiting and diarrhoea to the victim. These symptoms may not appear immediately but begin to show when the shock progresses (Mendelsohn and Karas, 2008). When severe bleeding occurs, the available blood is not enough for the heart to pump. In this essence, various body parts do not access the essential nutrients and substances hence causing them to begin shutting down.
When of blood is lost from the body, the mean pulse and arterial pressures fall. The rate of heartbeat increases in relevance to the amount of blood lost by the victim. When the haemorrhage shock is stopped, the pressure of the arteries slowly recovers as the rate of heartbeat declines because the long-term compensatory mechanisms are triggered to fix normal arterial pressure. Administration of body fluids can fasten the quick recovery from the shock.
Therefore, the motorists’ low blood pressure was due to a heart failure caused by the low blood volume and perfusion vital body organs. Additionally, the low blood pressure had led to low blood flow within the body organs and in turn causing kidney failure which is directly linked to the minimal urine released from the kidneys.
Compensatory mechanisms
The motorist’s blood vessels had been injured in the event of the accident leading to an increased blood loss. Generally, the decline in blood volume during acute blood loss leads to a reduction in the cardiac filling and central venous pressure (Shoemaker, 2013, p. 289). This causes a decline in arterial pressure and cardiac output. However, the body incorporates several compensatory mechanisms which are activated to bring back the blood volume and arterial pressure to normal. These include mechanisms such as the baroreceptor reflexes which immediately detect any slight changes in blood pressure. The baroreceptors then trigger the sympathetic-adrenal system to fasten the heart rate and contractility. The activation of the sympathetic adrenergic system also influences the coronary blood vessels and the heart leading to an increase in arterial pressure and systemic vascular resistance. In other words, cardiac output is redistributed from other body organs and into the brain and myocardium which help to promote healing.
The combined effects of the sympathetic activation and arterial hypotension stimulate the humeral compensatory mechanism. Sympathetic activation of the adrenal glands triggers the release of catecholamine which strengthens the sympathetic activation effects on vasculature and the heart. The kidneys secrete more renin which causes an increase in the circulation of aldosterone. The sympathetic activation also stimulates the release of vasopressin and renal water and sodium reabsorption to increase the volume of blood. This renal mechanism is vital in ensuring a long-term recovering from the loss of blood.
Assignment 2: Sociology
Task 1; Socialization
In definition, socialisation is the process of disseminating and inheriting ideologies, norms and customs, equipping a person with necessary habits and skills for social participation. In other words, socialisation is meant through which cultural and social continuity are realised (Kohlberg, 2017). In sociological theory, socialisation assumes a vital role as it forms the underlying process of social interaction which in turn shapes the essential behaviour for effective society participation. Social interaction gives the pathway for perpetuation and culture renewal of society. Particularly in children, the process of socialisation is dictated by two stages: primary socialisation and secondary socialisation which are considered fundamental for sustainment of all the other essential later forms of socialisation. These two stages ensure proper adaptation to social values throughout the lifecycle of a person. Based on this concept of socialisation, the processes represent socialisation in children as an interactive process through which they interpret social relationships within their cultural and social context.
Primary and secondary socialisation are the two basic forms of childhood socialisation which justify the children’s characters, inherited norms and customs. Primary socialisation is defined as the learning and acceptance of a set of social values and norms which are dictated by the process of socialisation. In childhood, this process of socialisation is significant as it sets the framework and foundation for al later socialisation stages (Parsons and Bales, 2016). Primary socialisation is characterised by the children learning the actions, values and attitudes which are deemed appropriate for a person to be a member of a particular society. Parents, caregivers and immediate friends are the main society units which influence primary socialisation. This face of socialisation gives an individual the basic step to align with social values and prepare the person to develop and create roles in a social context.
The primary socialisation process acts as the transformation of children into responsible and social human beings. This is especially done through teaching basic values as well as through language and training from their immediate family members (Maccoby and Martin, 2011). Social systems and social rules are incorporated with the child’s social experiences in order to evoke social and physical responses which are persistent in the context of culture. In this regards, the study of socialisation identifies the different functions of institutions such as family, school and media in instilling cultural and social values.
These agents of socialisation promote child development in a cognitive and social manner which shapes the psychological behaviours and attitudes during childhood. For instance, a child knows which gender they are and what they are expected to behave dependent on their gender from primary agents of socialisation. By the time secondary socialisation start influencing the child’s behaviour and attitudes, the children have already an idea of which gender they are and what the society expects them to behave in reference to their gender roles. In this regards, secondary agents are responsible for reinforcing what children learn from their primary agents of socialisation.
Secondary socialisation is a process characterised by the learning of what appropriate behaviour entails in regards to being a member of a small unit of the society. This type of socialisation, through secondary agents of the society such as school, reinforces and justifies the behavioural patterns learnt from primary socialisation during early stages of childhood. Through this process, children and adults learn responsive behaviours which are deemed appropriate by the society in which they are. Depending on the society in which the individuals are, secondary socialisation can result to desirable outcomes as the individuals learn what the society perceives as “normal” and hence, the social consensus influences the individual’s course of action. On the contrary, in some cases, some individuals do not undergo the experience of these processes of socialisation such as feral children or in other cases, a person learns inappropriate behavioural patterns within a society. In this case scenarios, the specified individual is subjected to resocialization process in which the individual in the subject is taught new values, norms and practices in order to adjust and align with the society in a social context.
Resocialization process exposes a person to new attitudes and skills which are deemed essential and adequate in a particular society and as dictated by norms and values of the people within it. The society performs an essential role in the psychological development of individuals, and hence the isolation and lack of social interaction generally result in issues which have been proven to be irreversible (Eastman, 2010). In regards to feral children experience, these children are isolated and lack total human contact and hence lacking the ability to fit in modern society in terms of behaviour, language and what the society perceives as “normal.” For instance, in a case scenario of “Victor of Aveyron” in which the boy lived in the woods for nine years without social interaction or human contact of any form. The boy was subjected to resocialization process through which he was able to learn and adapt some essential norms of civil life. However, the boy did not fully learn the language due to the lack of primary socialisation in childhood.
In this essence, the case scenario, the experience of feral children indicates that social deprivation and prevention from normal social interactions influence the mental health and child development process. The process of resocialization is instrumental in correcting the social discrepancies in feral children although the children do not fully learn society norms as compared to other normal children.
In conclusion, all the socialisation processes prepare individuals towards the achievement of appropriate social life by equipping them with shared behaviours, values, beliefs, norms and attitudes necessary for a normal social context. Primary socialisation is essential for childhood development as children learn social practices from their immediate caregivers and parents. Secondary socialisation reinforces the behavioural patterns acquired from primary socialisation and through which the individuals learn appropriate social behaviours as demanded by the society. Lastly, the resocialization process in feral children is instrumental in teaching the affected children new social ways of living even though the children do not learn all the parts of civil life due to mental and childhood development impairment which is largely irreversible.
Task 2: Influence of gender and class on woman’s identity
Women experiences are perceived to be guided and shaped by gender and social class identification. Gender-Class differences inflicted by the society are evident in women behaviours and beliefs which are key factors in defining women identity. Different attitudes and behaviours are expected from both girls and boys by the British society. Gender socialisation is termed as the impacting knowledge on different behaviours on the basis of gender which is instrumental in shaping ones’ identity in reference to their gender. Girls are brought up in conformity to the female role while boys are raised in conformity to the gender male role. Historically, the concept of gender and class has been used to define the woman’s identity in the British society.
Gender role refers to the personal traits, character, attitude, and behaviour which are encouraged and expected of the individual on the basis of sex (Benokraitis, 2017). A young British woman identity is influenced by social institutions which define the gender role and class identity in reference to the processes of socialisation. According to social sciences, institutions refer to mechanisms and structures of social comparison and order aimed at regulating peoples’ behaviour which aid in shaping ones’ identity in the society. These institutions are defined by the role of social permanents and purpose transcending society lives while setting and enforcing a set of rules which govern the human corporation, behaviour and identity. The gender and class socialisation institutions are family, school and the media.
Primary socialising agents such as parents and caregivers form the starting point towards the shaping of woman’s identity. Family is viewed as the main source of influence of socialisation. In other words, the family is the initial agent of socialisation. A child acquires the initial behaviours and identity through the family which in turn, define the overall moral conduct and ones’ identity in the future. The family institution is significant since it sires the first civilised behaviours. In this essence, the feminine class and gender roles begin in the family. Additionally, families play a vital in influencing one’s identity, emotional health, and personality. It is evident that parents socialise differently with both daughters and sons, for example, boys are allowed to be independent and free at an early stage than girls, they are less counselled on appropriate dating habits and clothing. They are also free from carrying out domestic duties and other household chores which are termed as feminine. On the other hand, girls’ freedom and independence are limited as they are expected to be generally obedient, passive and nurturing and as well assume almost all household tasks.
The secondary process of socialisation also plays a vital role in establishing the identity of a woman in British society. Secondary socialising agents such as the school nurtures the identity already acquired from the family. In schools, identity is acquired through the official, social or the hidden curriculum. The official and social curriculum includes the identity gained by the students from their female teachers which also influence the shaping of their identity status in the society. The school teaches the children on their roles within the society in regards to their gender. Subsequently, social class generates expectations and meanings in the objective material. In the British society, Upper-class women and lower-class women social status provides class-based pressure which dictates how women relate, and their occupation in the society. These class-based differences define the identity of women and their role in the society.
Through secondary socialisation, women are in the British society are able to determine their identity in reference to their cultural gender roles and social class status. The media institutions such as television, movies, and radios among others educate the women ways of establishing and shaping their identity based on examples from fellow women within their social class status. Socialization occurring through radio shows and television programs which are usually commercialized are effective in guiding women on how to develop and shape their identity in the society.
In conclusion, inheritance of ideologies and social norms is significant in defining women identity and, therefore, primary and secondary socialisation plays a vital role in the process of acquiring and inheriting these desired norms and characters aimed at describing one’s identity in the society. The socialisation process and institutions which outlines the gender and class influences and roles can lead individuals to shape identity. In these assertions, the gender role and social class of women are essential in guiding and shaping their identity.
Assignment 3: Normal and Abnormal Behavior
The concept of Normal and Abnormal Behaviour
Every person has their own defined view of what a normal and abnormal behaviour entails a hence their life is defined according to what they perceive to be normal. In this reference, abnormal behaviour is described as the behaviour which is non-usual and non-adaptive and non-usual in the society, and it’s widely termed as absurd, and it also has cognitive distortion features (Sarason and Sarason, 2009). The psychological reasoning of an individual defines the concept of normal and abnormal behaviours. In this regards, abnormal behavioural patterns are associated with disruption of psychological reasoning through which an individual develops disorder which leads to abnormality.
In the past decades, numerous studies have been subjected to define the concept which entails what is abnormal in comparison of what is normal. Many researchers seek to determine behaviours on whether it violates the established social values, normal and beliefs, or whether it makes people safe, distressed or threatened. Historically, normal and abnormal behaviour patterns have been defined in accordance with the emotional, social tribulations and cognitive distortions of a person.
Models of Abnormality
The models of abnormality incorporate theories which aid in describing the cause of psychological disorders. These models include biological, psychodynamic, cognitive and behavioural approaches which provide different views on the concept of abnormality. All the models in conjunction provide for treatment approaches and extra research on behaviours. However, psychologists have had distinct views on analysing abnormal behaviours. Some link the origin of abnormal behaviours to psychological behaviours while other links it to biological effects.
The behavioural approach has also been applied in defining normal and abnormal behaviours. In this perspective, abnormal behaviours are termed as uncouth behaviour which causes personal distress and disturbance. Psychologists who base their ideas on this perspective argue that abnormal; behaviours develop from faulty and inefficient learning. They also argue that these behaviours are learned mostly through observing the behaviours of other people and imitating them. Desired treatments are in turn administered to correct the behaviour disorder. This can be done for example through traditional learning procedures to instal new and desired behaviours.
The cognitive approach is also applied to understanding behaviours. In this approach, people are believed to get involved in abnormal behaviours due to the presence of certain thoughts and behaviours which mostly liked to false assumptions. These thoughts control of the mind and body of the victim making them be aggressive and emotionally unstable forcing them to involve in abnormal acts. These people view themselves as weak and worthless according to their own thoughts according to several psychologists, helping them acquire new thoughts and values helps them in reducing personal distress. Therapy can also be implemented to aid in unlearning maladaptive behaviours and replacing them with positive ones.
The psychodynamic behaviour on the other hand also aids in providing depth knowledge and understanding of behaviours (Blatt and Bers, 2010). According to this perspective, mental disorders develop from cases of anxiety and unresolved childhood dreams and conflicts. This approach links with the humanistic approach which depicts those certain uncouth behaviours when people cannot pursue their deep passions and desires in life. Such disorders can be corrected through encouraging the adoption of new resolutions in solving the personal conflicts.
Difficulties in defining psychological abnormalities
In defining abnormalities, the discussed classifications are objective, but there arise society fears of the classified individuals, and their respective families may be against the classification. This is due to globalisation and integration of cultures, and hence some society definition of abnormal does not meet preset criteria on which behaviour are normal or which behaviours are to perceived as abnormal based on traditional beliefs. Additionally, the model of abnormality has been only proved to be effective in the treatment of physical illnesses but not mental disorders as the individuals are characterised on what they feel, and this covers many criteria in different individuals. Another difficulty is that clinical psychologists and psychiatrists possess limited information when treating mental disorders in contrary to those individuals with physical disorders and hence this indicates that diagnosing disorders based on this information is partially impossible.
Biological and psychological perspectives of abnormality
Researchers have had distinct views on analysing abnormal behaviours. Some link the origin of abnormal behaviours to psychological behaviours while other links it to biological effects (Ullmann and Krasner, 2015). The biological model links abnormal behaviour to the biological system of human nature. In this regard, abnormal behaviour is explained in terms of abnormal biology and categorises abnormal behaviours as a physical condition and views mental disorder as an illness. This model proposes that psychological disorders have underlying biochemical causes in that, the abnormalities arise from inherited system defects, germ infection, and trauma as well as neurochemical factors.
On the other hand, psychological perspective includes the study of behaviours problems in reference to the actions which defines psychological behaviours while the utilisation of biological terms is largely underrated as it lacks empathy in defining actions of individuals in defining abnormalities.
How culture, gender, socio-economic groups and any other factors can influence the incidence and diagnosis of psychological disorders
Different communities have inherited standards of values, attitudes and behaviour and if individual characteristics are outside the established criterion, the specific individual is described as abnormal as he/she has deviated from normal social norms. These society beliefs act as the basis for identification of abnormalities which lead to the involved individual to be subjected to further analysis by professionals in order to determine the degree of their abnormalities as well as the treatment expected. Additionally, some cultures highly discriminate individuals, and hence this demotivates individuals for seeking clinical help for mental disorders.
Clinical psychologists give an overall presumption on how culture issues, gender, and socio-economic groups are statistically referred. In this essence, this forms the parameter which determines how these factors help in diagnosing psychological disorders. In addition to these factors, several other factors such as depression and anxiety in reference to mental health problems are statistically included in defining normal human conditions. In regards to gender, it has been established that males are highly likely of not consulting a doctor if suffering for mental and physical disorders and hence, females, on the other hand, have a high statistical score. This indicates that, in terms of gender, females are diagnosed early with the mental disorders.
From a social-cultural perspective, a social context defines normal and abnormal behaviour. In other words, the social norms and cultures form the family and community. The social values are historically associated with the creation and adaptation of abnormal behaviours. The socio-cultural perspective attaches abnormal behavioural patterns of absurd feelings and thoughts to a society-cultural pattern which impacts the psychological health of individuals within a social context.
Additionally, many factors in the community can cause abnormal behaviours as it performs a significant role in individual’s behaviours. Some society setting is characterised by societal pressure on its individuals as they have high demands of set standards of needs and desires. This, in turn, causes mental and physical pressure on the individual in the bit of changing or adopting a certain personality in order to align with the society. This societal pressure causes depression, anxiety, and stress which are associated with abnormal behaviours.
Bibliography
Blatt, S. J., & Bers, S. J. 2010. The sense of self in depression: A psychodynamic perspective.
Dampney, R.A., 2011. Functional organisation of central pathways regulating the cardiovascular system. Physiological reviews, 74(2), pp.323-364.
Eagen, J.W., Memoli, V.A., Roberts, J.L., Matthew, G.R., Schwartz, M.M. and Lewis, E.J., 2009. Pulmonary haemorrhage in systemic lupus erythematosus. Medicine, 57(6), pp.545-560.
Eastman, P.C., 2010. Consciousness‐raising as a resocialization process for feral children. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 43(3), pp.153-183.
Eccles, J.S., Freedman-Doan, C., Frome, P., Jacobs, J. and Yoon, K.S., 2000. Gender-role socialisation in the family: A longitudinal approach.
Edvinsson, L., McCulloch, J. and Uddman, R., 2017. Veins and arteries: comparison of innervation. The Journal of physiology, 325(1), pp.161-173.
Kohlberg, L., 2017. Stage and sequence: The cognitive-developmental approach to socialisation. Rand McNally.
Longres, J. F. (2000). Human behaviour in the social environment. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
Maccoby, E.E. and Martin, J.A., 2011. Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. Handbook of child psychology: formerly Carmichael’s Manual of child psychology/Paul H. Mussen, editor.
Maruyama, I., Bell, C.E. and Majerus, P.W., 2007. Endothelium of arteries, veins, capillaries, and lymphatics, and on a human. The Journal of cell biology, 101(2), pp.363-371.
Mendelsohn, M.E. and Karas, R.H., 2008. The cardiovascular system. New England journal of medicine, 340(23), pp.1801-1811.
Mitchell, J.H., Kaufman, M.P. and Iwamoto, G.A., 2014. The exercise pressor reflex: its cardiovascular effects, afferent mechanisms, and central pathways. Annual Review of Physiology, 45(1), pp.229-242.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Rector, N. A. 2015. Abnormal psychology. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Parsons, T. and Bales, R.F., 2016. Family socialisation and interaction process (Vol. 7). Psychology Press.
Patterson, G. R., DeBaryshe, B. D., & Ramsey, E. (2012). A developmental perspective on antisocial behaviour (Vol. 44, No. 2, p. 329). US: American Psychological Association.
Pringle, J.H., 2016. V. haemorrhage. Annals of surgery, 48(4), p.541.
Sarason, I. G., & Sarason, B. R. (2009). Abnormal psychology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Shoemaker, W.C., 2013. Circulatory mechanisms of shock and their mediators. Critical care medicine, 15(8), pp.787-794.
Sue, D., Sue, D. W., Sue, S., & Sue, D. M. (2015). Understanding abnormal behaviour. Cengage Learning.
Ullmann, L. P., & Krasner, L. (2015). A psychological approach to abnormal behaviour. Prentice-Hall.
